Biodegradable Systems in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine 1st Edition by Rui Reis, Julio San Román 0849319366 9780849319365

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ISBN 10: 0849319366

ISBN 13: 9780849319365

Author: Rui L. Reis, Julio San Román

Conventional materials technology has yielded clear improvements in regenerative medicine. Ideally, however, a replacement material should mimic the living tissue mechanically, chemically, biologically and functionally. The use of tissue-engineered products based on novel biodegradable polymeric systems will lead to dramatic improvements in health

Biodegradable Systems in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine 1st Table of contents:

PART I: PROCESSING AND APPLICATIONS OF BIODEGRADABLE SYSTEMS

1: BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS IN MEDICINE

1.1 INTRODUCTION

1.2 MATERIALS

1.3 APPLIED FIELDS

1.3.1 BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERIC MATERIALS FOR ADHESION AND FIXATION OF TISSUES

1.3.2 BIODEGRADABLE POLYMER MATERIALS FOR SUPPORT AND REINFORCEMENT OF OTHER MEDICAL DEVICES

1.3.3 BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERIC MATERIALS AS TEMPORARY SUBSTITUTES FOR TISSUE

1.3.4 BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERIC MATERIALS FOR SHAPE MAINTENANCE AND ISOLATION

1.3.5 BIODEGRADABLE MATERIALS FOR SECURING SPACE FOR TISSUE REGENERATION

1.3.6 BIODEGRADABLE MATERIALS AS A BASE FOR TISSUE REGENERATION

1.4 SUMMARY

REFERENCES

2: INJECTABLE BIODEGRADABLE SYSTEMS

2.1 INTRODUCTION

2.2 TYPES OF INJECTABLES

2.2.1 THERMOPLASTIC PASTES

2.2.2 IN SITU CROSSLINKING/POLYMERIZATION SYSTEMS

2.2.3 IN SITU PRECIPITATION

2.2.4 INJECTABLE HYDROGELS

2.3 MATERIALS

2.3.1 PLA-BASED MATERIALS

2.3.2 POLY(ORTHO ESTERS)

2.3.3 THERMOGELLING HYDROGELS OF PEG AND PLGA

2.3.4 CHITOSAN

2.3.5 OTHER MATERIALS

2.4 APPLICATIONS

2.4.1 OPHTHALMIC APPLICATIONS

2.4.2 SURGICAL BARRIERS

2.4.3 SCAFFOLDS FOR TISSUE ENGINEERING

2.4.4 BONE CEMENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

3: INJECTABLE POLYMERIC SCAFFOLDS FOR BONE TISSUE ENGINEERING

3.1 INTRODUCTION

3.2 ADVANTAGES OF INJECTABLE SYSTEMS FOR BONE TISSUE ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS

3.3 CHALLENGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF INJECTABLE CAFFOLDS

3.4 BONETISSUE ENGINEERING STRATEGIES USING INJECTABLE SYSTEMS

3.4.1 INJECTABLE MATERIALS AS POROUS SCAFFOLDS

3.4.2 INJECTABLE MATERIALS AS CARRIERS FOR OSTEOINDUCTIVE FACTORS

3.4.3 INJECTABLE MATERIALS AS CELL CARRIERS

3.5 CONCLUSION

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

4: TOTALLY OR PARTIALLY BIODEGRADABLE SELF- POLYMERIZING COMPOSITES FOR ORTHOPEDIC SURGERY AND DENTAL APPLICATIONS

4.1 INTRODUCTION

4.2 COMPOSITES BASED ON POLY(PROPYLENE FUMARATE)

4.2.1 ANTIBIOTIC DELIVERY SYSTEMS

4.3 COMPOSITES BASED ON POLY(METHYL METHACRYLATE)

4.3.1 RESORBABLE COMPONENTS IN THE SOLID PHASE

4.3.2 RESORBABLE COMPONENTS IN THE LIQUID PHASE

4.3.3 ANTIBIOTIC DELIVERY SYSTEMS

4.4 PHOTOPOLYMERIZED SYSTEMS

REFERENCES

5: FIBER BONDING AND PARTICLE AGGREGATION AS PROMISING METHODOLOGIES FOR THE FABRICATION OF BIODEGRADABLE SCAFFOLDS FOR HARD-TISSUE ENGINEERING

5.1 INTRODUCTION

5.2 REQUIREMENTS FOR TISSUE ENGINEERING SCAFFOLDS AND SCAFFOLD FABRICATION TECHNIQUES

5.3 FIBER BONDING

5.3.1 FIBER MESHES

5.3.2 ELECTROSPINNING

5.4 PARTICLE AGGREGATION

5.5 CONCLUSIONS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

6: DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF SCAFFOLDS VIA SOLID FREE-FORM FABRICATION

6.1 INTRODUCTION

6.2 SCAFFOLD DESIGN AND PROPERTIES

6.2.1 MORPHOLOGY/ARCHITECTURE

6.2.2 MATERIALS AND PROPERTIES

6.3 SCAFFOLD FABRICATION

6.3.1 SYSTEMS BASED ON LASER TECHNOLOGY

6.3.2 SYSTEMS BASED ON PRINT TECHNOLOGY

6.3.3 ADVANCED MANUFACTURING-BASED SYSTEMS

6.3.4 EXTRUSION TECHNOLOGY-BASED SYSTEMS

6.3.5 INDIRECT SFF

6.4 CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES

7: BIODEGRADABLE COMPOSITES FOR BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS

7.1 INTRODUCTION

7.2 COMPOSITES IN THE BIOMEDICAL FIELD

7.3 BIODEGRADABLE COMPOSITE MATERIALS

7.3.1 NATURAL AND NATURAL-ORIGIN BIODEGRADABLE COMPOSITES

7.3.2 SYNTHETIC BIODEGRADABLE COMPOSITES

7.4 BIOACTIVE REINFORCEMENTS

7.5 MELT-BASED PROCESSING OF COMPOSITES

7.6 FINAL REMARKS

REFERENCES

8: DEVELOPMENT OF BIOACTIVE COMPOSITES BASED ON BIODEGRADABLE SYSTEMS FOR BONE REPLACEMENT APPLICATIONS

8.1 INTRODUCTION

8.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS

8.2.1 MATERIALS

8.2.2 EXTRUSION COMPOUNDING

8.2.3 MECHANICAL TESTING

8.2.4 SOAKING IN SIMULATED BODY FLUID (SBF)

8.2.5 MORPHOLOGICAL AND ELEMENTAL ANALYSIS

8.2.6 SOLUTION ANALYSIS

8.3 RESULTS

8.3.1 MECHANICAL RESULTS

8.3.2 SOAKING IN SBF

8.4 DISCUSSION

8.5 CONCLUSIONS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

9: MECHANICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF BIOMATERIALS

9.1 INTRODUCTION

9.2 QUASI-STATIC TESTS

9.3 FATIGUE

9.4 CREEP EXPERIMENTS

9.4.1 VISCOELASTICITY

9.4.2 DEFINITION

9.4.3 TIME-TEMPERATURE SUPERPOSITION

9.4.4 THE BOLTZMANN SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE

9.5 STRESS RELAXATION EXPERIMENTS

9.6 DYNAMICTESTS

9.7 MECHANICALTESTS IN SIMULATED PHYSIOLOGICAL SOLUTIONS

9.8 CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES

10: CHITOSAN-BASED MICROCOMPOSITES—FROM BIODEGRADABLE MICROPARTICLES TO SELF-CURING HYDROGELS

10.1 INTRODUCTION

10.2 CHITOSAN/PROTEINS

10.3 CHITOSAN/POLYSACCHARIDES

10.4 CHITOSAN/DNA

10.5 CHITOSAN/DEGRADABLE POLYESTERS

10.6 CHITOSAN/INORGANICS

10.7 CHITOSAN/SYNTHETIC HYDROPHILIC POLYMERS (NONIONIC)

10.8 CHITOSAN/SYNTHETIC ANIONIC POLYMERS

10.9 CHITOSAN/LIPIDS

REFERENCES

11: PROCESSING AND BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS OF DEGRADABLE POLYMERIC FIBERS

11.1 INTRODUCTION

11.2 PROCESSING OF POLYMERIC FIBERS

11.2.1 MELT SPINNING

11.2.2 DRY SPINNING

11.2.3 WET SPINNING

11.3 FIBER STRUCTURES

11.4 MEDICAL APPLICATIONS OF BIODEGRADABLE FIBERS

11.4.1 SUTURES

11.4.2 WOUND HEALING

11.4.3 LIGAMENT TISSUE ENGINEERING

11.4.4 CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM APPLICATIONS

11.4.5 BONE AND CARTILAGE TISSUE ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS

11.5 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE ASPECTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

12: UNDERSTANDING THE ENZYMATIC DEGRADATION OF BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS AND STRATEGIES TO CONTROL THEIR DEGRADATION RATE

12.1 INTRODUCTION

12.2 IMPORTANCE OF BIODEGRADABILITY IN BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS

12.3 DEGRADATION PROCESSES IN BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS

12.3.1 CHEMICAL AND ENZYMATIC OXIDATION

12.3.2 NONENZYMATIC HYDROLYSIS

12.3.3 ENZYME-CATALYZED HYDROLYSIS

12.4 IN VITRO STUDIES TO ASSESS THE DEGRADATION KINETICS OF BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS

12.4.1 DEGRADATION-MONITORING TECHNIQUES

12.4.2 MECHANISMS OF DEGRADATION

12.4.3 STRATEGIES FOR CONTROLLING THE DEGRADATION RATE OF BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS

12.5 ENZYMATIC DEGRADATION OF STARCH-BASED BIOMATERIALS—A CASE IN STUDY

12.5.1 MATERIALS AND METHODS

12.5.2 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

12.6 CONCLUDING REMARKS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

PART II: PRODUCTION OF BIOMIMETIC COATINGS ON THE SURFACE OF DEGRADABLE POLYMERS

13: BONELIKE APATITE COATINGS NUCLEATED ON BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS AS A WAY TO INDUCE BONE MINERALIZATION: CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS AND FUTURE TRENDS

13.1 INTRODUCTION

13.2 EVOLUTION OF THE COATING METHODOLOGIES

13.3 BIO-INSPIRED COATINGS

13.3.1 THE BIOMIMETIC METHODOLOGY

13.3.2 OTHER PREMINERALIZATION ROUTES

13.4 COATING STARCH-BASED BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS

1 3.4.1 SODIUM SILICATE AS A PRECURSOR FOR A CAP COATING

13.5 NEW OPPORTUNITIES FOR COATED MATERIALS

13.6 CONCLUSIONS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

14: BIOMIMETIC COATINGS, PROTEINS, AND BIOCATALYSTS: A NEW APPROACH TO TAILOR THE PROPERTIES OF BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS

14.1 INTRODUCTION

14.2 CALCIUM PHOSPHATE CERAMIC

14.3 PROTEINS AND ENZYMES: GENERAL PROPERTIES

14.3.1 PROTEIN COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE

14.3.2 PROTEIN BEHAVIOR AT SURFACES

14.3.3 CATALYTIC ACTIVITY OF ENZYMES: THE ABILITY TO TRANSFORM AND CONTROL LOCAL CHEMISTRY

14.4 BONE PROPERTIES AND MINERALIZATION

14.4.1 STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE BONE

14.4.2 BONE MINERALIZATION

14.4.3 THE INTERFACE BONE IMPLANT

14.5 BIODEGRADABLES AND BIOMIMETIC COATINGS

14.5.1 BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS

14.5.2 CAP COATING TECHNIQUES

14.5.3 BIOMIMETIC COATINGS

14.6 PROTEINS AS NATURE’S CRYSTAL ENGINEERS: HOW PROTEINS MANIPULATE THE MICROSTRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

14.6.1 MINERALIZATION PROCESS

14.6.2 CRYSTAL ENGINEERING CAPABILITY OF PROTEINS

14.7 PROTEIN INCORPORATION ONTO BIOMIMETIC COATINGS

14.8 APPLICATIONS AND NEW PERSPECTIVES

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

PART III: SYSTEMS FOR CONTROLLED RELEASE OF BIOACTIVE AGENTS

15: STRATEGIES FOR DELIVERING BONE AND CARTILAGE REGENERATING FACTORS

15.1 INTRODUCTION TO DRUG DELIVERY

15.2 OUTLINE OF THERAPIES AVAILABLE IN THE DRUG DELIVERY FIELD

15.2.1 MICROPARTICLES/SPHERES

15.2.2 NANOPARTICLES/SPHERES

15.3 BONE AND CARTILAGE CARRIER SYSTEMS FOR TISSUE ENGINEERING

15.3.1 BONE AND CARTILAGE BIOLOGICALLY ACTIVE FACTORS AND STRATEGIES FOR DELIVERY

15.3.2 OTHER POLYMERIC SYSTEMS AS POTENTIAL APPROACHES FOR TISSUE ENGINEERING

15.4 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE TRENDS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

16: RESORBABLE POLYMERIC DELIVERY SYSTEMS BASED ON PHYSICAL ABSORPTION/DIFFUSION VERSUS CHEMICALLY CONTROLLED DELIVERY SYSTEMS

16.1 INTRODUCTION

16.2 SOLVENT-CONTROLLED SYSTEMS

16.3 DIFFUSION-CONTROLLED SYSTEMS

16.4 CHEMICALLY CONTROLLED SYSTEMS

16.4.1 IBUPROFEN AND KETOPROFEN CONJUGATES

16.4.2 BIOCOMPATIBLE CONJUGATES WITH ANTIAGGREGATING PROPERTIES FOR PLATELETS

16.4.3 POLYMERIC DRUGS WITH ANTIOXIDANT PROPERTIES DERIVED FROM VITAMIN E

16.5 CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES

17: ENZYME IMMOBILIZATION IN BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS FOR BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS

17.1 INTRODUCTION

17.2 ENZYMES IN MEDICINE

17.2.1 CLINICAL DIAGNOSIS

17.2.2 ENZYME THERAPY

17.3 ENZYME IMMOBILIZATION TECHNOLOGY

17.3.1 METHODS FOR IMMOBILIZING ENZYMES IN POLYMERIC CARRIERS

17.3.2 ENZYME IMMOBILIZATION IN BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS

17.4 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

18: USE OF CHEMICALLY MODIFIED CHITOSAN AND OTHER NATURAL-ORIGIN POLYMERS IN TISSUE ENGINEERING AND DRUG DELIVERY

18.1 INTRODUCTION

18.2 CONJUGATION WITH IONIC GROUPS

18.2.1 SULFATED CHITOSAN AND CHITIN

18.2.2 INCORPORATION OF PHOSPHATE GROUPS

18.2.3 OTHERIONIC GROUPS

18.3 ACYLATED AND ACETYLATED DERIVATIVES

18.4 CONJUGATION WITH BIOLOGICAL MOIETIES

18.4.1 MONOSACCHARIDE DERIVATIVES

18.4.2 CONJUGATION WITH LIPID AND OTHER BIOMOLECULES

18.5 MODIFICATION OF AMINOGLYCAN POLYSACCHARIDES

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

PART IV: BIOCOMPATIBILITY AND IMMUNOLOGICAL RESPONSES TO DEGRADABLE BIOMATERIALS

19: CYTOTOXICITY SCREENING OF BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERIC SYSTEMS

19.1 AIMS OF CYTOTOXICITY SCREENING IN BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERIC SYSTEMS

19.2 BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERIC SYSTEMS—EFFECTS OF DEGRADATION AND LEACHABLES IN BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS

19.3 TESTING POLYMERIC BIODEGRADABLE SYSTEMS

19.3.1 IN VITRO VERSUS IN VIVO TESTING

19.3.2 CELL LINES VERSUS PRIMARY CULTURES IN IN VITRO TESTING

19.3.3 STANDARDIZATION OF CYTOTOXICITY SCREENING TESTS

19.4 SHORT-TERM TESTS VERSUS LONG-TERM TESTS

19.5 WHAT TO EVALUATE AND TECHNIQUES AVAILABLE

19.5.1 MORPHOLOGICAL

19.5.2 BIOCHEMICAL

19.5.3 GENETIC

19.6 BIOFUNCTIONALITY ASSESSMENT IN VITRO

19.7 IN VIVO TESTING: THE NEXT STEP

19.8 CONCLUSIONS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

20: NATURAL-ORIGIN DEGRADABLE MATERIALS: THE BARRIER OR THE PASSAGE THROUGH THE IMMUNE SYSTEM?

ABSTRACT

20.1 INTRODUCTION

20.2 IMMUNE SYSTEM

20.2.1 INFLAMMATORY CELLS

20.2.2 IMMUNE RESPONSES

20.3 FOREIGN-BODY REACTION TO IMPLANTED MATERIALS

20.3.1 WOUND HEALING

20.3.2 ACUTE INFLAMMATION

20.3.3 CHRONIC INFLAMMATION

20.3.4 REPARATIVE PHASE

20.4 HYPERSENSITIVITY TO METALS

20.5 IMMUNOREACTIVITY TO NATURAL-ORIGIN VERSUS SYNTHETIC BIODEGRADABLE SYSTEMS

20.6 CONCLUSIONS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

21: MEDIATION OF THE CYTOKINE NETWORK IN THE IMPLANTATION OF ORTHOPEDIC DEVICES

21.1 INTRODUCTION

21.2 CYTOKINES

21.2.1 PRO-INFLAMMATORY CYTOKINES

21.2.2 ANTI-INFLAMMATORY CYTOKINES

21.2.3 CHEMOKINES (CHEMOTACTIC CYTOKINES)

21.2.4 CYTOKINE GROWTH FACTORS

21.3 ADHESION MOLECULES

21.3.1 SELECTINS

21.3.2 INTEGRINS

21.3.3 IMMUNOGLOBULIN SUPERFAMILY MEMBRANE PROTEINS

21.4 CYTOKINES REGULATION

21.5 ORTHOPEDIC APPLICATIONS

21.6 CONCLUSIONS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

22: PROTEIN AND CELL INTERACTIONS WITH BIODEGRADABLE SYSTEMS

22.1 SURFACES, SOLUTIONS, PROTEINS, AND CELLS: THE FOUR KEY ELEMENTS

22.2 THE IMPORTANCE OF SURFACE PROPERTIES

22.3 PROTEINS, ADSORPTION, AND KINETICS

22.3.1 ASSESSING PROTEIN ADSORPTION

22.3.2 PROTEINS IN DEFINITION

22.3.3 ADSORPTION AND DESORPTION KINETICS

22.4 EXCHANGE AND COMPETITION OF PROTEINS: BLOOD PLASMA AND COMPLEX SOLUTIONS

22.5 PROTEIN RECOGNITION AND CELL ADHESION MECHANISMS

22.6 SELECTIVE PROTEIN ADSORPTION: STRATEGIES FOR CONTROLLING AND MODULATING CELL AND TISSUE RESPONSE

22.6.1 PROTEINS AND PEPTIDE SEQUENCES

22.6.2 PROTEIN-RESISTANT SURFACES

22.7 FUTURE DIRECTIONS AND CONCLUDING REMARKS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

23: SURFACE ACTIVATION AND MODIFICATION—A WAY FOR IMPROVING THE BIOCOMPATIBILITY OF DEGRADABLE BIOMATERIALS

23.1 INTRODUCTION

23.1.1 PHYSICAL MODIFICATIONS

23.2 PLASMA SURFACE MODIFICATION OF BIOMATERIALS

23.2.1 SOME TERMS

23.2.2 PLASMA SPUTTERING AND ETCHING

23.2.3 PLASMA FUNCTIONALIZATION

23.2.4 DUAL PLASMA DEPOSITION

23.2.5 PLASMA POLYMERIZATION

23.3 GRAFTING

23.3.1 CHEMICAL TREATMENTS

23.4 WET CHEMISTRY

23.4.1 ETCHING AND OXIDATION

23.4.2 HYDROLYSIS

23.5 STERILIZATION

23.5.1 ã-IRRADIATION

23.5.2 ETHYLENE OXIDE STERILIZATION

23.6 CHARACTERIZATION

23.6.1 CONTACT ANGLE MEASUREMENTS

23.6.2 X-RAY PHOTOELECTRON SPECTROSCOPY (XPS)

23.6.3 FOURIER TRANSFORM INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY— ATTENUATED TOTAL REFLECTANCE (FTIR-ATR)

23.6.4 SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY (SEM)

23.6.5 ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPY (AFM)

23.7 CONCLUSIONS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

PART V: BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS FOR THE ENGINEERING AND REGENERATION OF DIFFERENT TISSUES

24: BONE AND ARTICULAR CARTILAGE TISSUE ENGINEERING: THE BIOLOGICAL COMPONENTS

24.1 INTRODUCTION

24.2 CLINICAL NEEDS

24.2.1 BONE

24.2.2 ARTICULAR CARTILAGE

24.3 BONE AND CARTILAGE STRUCTURAL BIOLOGY

24.3.1 BONE BIOLOGY

24.3.2 CARTILAGE BIOLOGY

24.4 CELLS FOR TISSUE ENGINEERING OF BONE AND CARTILAGE

24.4.1 OSTEOBLASTS AND CHONDROCYTES

24.4.2 STEM CELLS

24.5 GROWTH FACTORS

24.6 BIOREACTORS IN TISSUE ENGINEERING OF BONE AND CARTILAGE

24.7 ANIMAL MODELS

24.7.1 ANIMAL MODELS IN BONE TISSUE ENGINEERING

24.7.2 ANIMAL MODELS IN CARTILAGE TISSUE ENGINEERING

24.8 CONCLUDING REMARKS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

25: TISSUE ENGINEERING OF THE LIVER

25.1 INTRODUCTION

25.2 CELL SOURCES FOR HEPATOCELLULAR THERAPIES

25.2.1 PRIMARY HEPATOCYTES

25.2.2 HEPATOCYTE CELL LINES

25.2.3 STEM CELLS

25.3 HEPATOCYTE TRANSPLANTATION

25.4 BIOARTIFICIAL LIVER (BAL)

25.5 TISSUE-ENGINEERED CELLULAR CONSTRUCTS

25.5.1 SYNTHETIC/BIOLOGICAL EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX ANALOGUES

25.5.2 CELL-CELL INTERACTIONS AND TOPOGRAPHY

25.6 ANGIOGENESIS

25.7 FUTURE PROSPECTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

26: SMART BIODEGRADABLE HYDROGELS WITH APPLICATIONS IN DRUG DELIVERY AND TISSUE ENGINEERING

26.1 INTRODUCTION

26.2 TEMPERATURE-SENSITIVE HYDROGELS

26.2.1 “ON-OFF” AND PULSATILE DELIVERY CONCEPTS

26.2.2 APPLICATIONS OF T-SENSITIVE HYDROGELS

26.3 pH-SENSITIVE HYDROGELS

26.3.1 BASIC CONCEPTS

26.3.2 APPLICATIONS OF PH-SENSITIVE HYDROGELS

26.4 GLUCOSE RESPONSIVE SYSTEMS

26.4.1 PH-SENSITIVE MEMBRANE SYSTEMS

26.5 OTHER TYPES OF SENSITIVE HYDROGELS

26.5.1 ELECTRIC-, MAGNETIC-, AND ULTRASOUND-RESPONSIVE HYDROGELS

26.5.2 PROTEIN-RESPONSIVE HYDROGELS

26.6 CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES

27: SKIN TISSUE ENGINEERING PART I — REVIEW

27.1 INTRODUCTION

27.2 SKIN TISSUE ENGINEERING FROM A HEALTH CARE PERSPECTIVE

27.3 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SKIN GRAFTING

27.4 EPIDERMAL SKIN GRAFTS

27.4.1 CULTURED EPIDERMAL AUTOGRAFTS (CEA)

27.4.2 FIBRIN GLUE

27.4.3 HYALURONAN

27.4.4 CHITOSAN

27.4.5 SYNTHETIC POLYMERS

27.5 DERMAL SKIN GRAFT

27.6 SKIN EQUIVALENT

27.7 FUTURE PERSPECTIVES AND RESEARCH DIRECTIONS

27.7.1 SKIN PRECURSOR CELLS

REFERENCES

28: SKIN TISSUE ENGINEERING PART II—THE IN VITRO EVALUATION OF NATURAL AND SYNTHETIC 3-D MATRICES AS DERMAL SUBSTRATES

28.1 INTRODUCTION

28.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS

28.2.1 SUBSTRATE PREPARATION

28.2.2 CELL ISOLATION, CULTURE, AND SEEDING

28.2.3 CELL MORPHOLOGY AND VIABILITY

28.2.4 CELL PROLIFERATION

28.2.5 HISTOLOGY AND IMMUNOCYTOCHEMISTRY

28.3 RESULTS

28.3.1 MACROSCOPIC OBSERVATIONS

28.3.2 CELL MORPHOLOGY AND VIABILITY

28.3.4 HISTOLOGY

28.3.5 IMMUNOCYTOCHEMISTRY

28.4 DISCUSSION

28.4.1 COMPARISON OF SCAFFOLD MATERIALS

28.4.1.3 PLGA-PCL

28.4.2 CHARACTERIZATION TECHNIQUES AND DATA INTERPRETATION

28.5 CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

29: BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS FOR GUIDED NERVE REGENERATION

29.1 INTRODUCTION

29.2 NERVE REGENERATION AND MATERIALS FOR NERVE REGENERATION

29.3 CONCLUSIONS

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