Energy Modeling and Computations in the Building Envelope 1st Edition by Alexander V Dimitrov ISBN 1498723225 9781498723220

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ISBN 10: 1498723225 
ISBN 13: 9781498723220
Author: Alexander V Dimitrov

Energy Modeling and Computations in the Building Envelope 1st Table of contents:

1 Introduction: The Buildings’ Envelope—A Component of the Building Energy System
1.1 Systematic Approach Applied to Buildings
1.2 Envelope System (Envelope) and Energy Functions Design
FIGURE 1.1 PV panels integrated in the building envelope: (1) workshop hall; (2) covered railway station; (3) sporting court; (4) block of flats in Paderborn/Gr 1.8 kW; (5) public administrative building; (6) commercial building (mall); (7) outside the townhouse; (8) private residential building.
FIGURE 1.2 Building envelope integrated with components of a hybrid lighting system: (1) solar energy receiver; (2) optical cables; (3) lighting fixture operating in daylight.
FIGURE 1.3 Building envelope combined with wind turbines: (1) rooftop horizontal propellers; (2) vertical roof wind turbines; (3) integrated wind generation station; (4) stand-alone wind turbine; (5) a series of wind turbines installed between two buildings; (6–7) a series of wind turbines; (8) highway horizontal propellers; (9) Mylars’ roof horizontal turbine; (10) powerful rooftop wind turbine.
TABLE 1.1 Price per 1 m2 of Surrounding Walls
FIGURE 1.4 Two techniques of controlling the energy flux though the components of the envelope: (a) the envelope as an energy barrier; (b) the envelope as an energy filter, (1) volumetric (Fourier) resistance, (2) capacitive resistance (with or without phase exchange), (3) reflective resistance long-wave spectrum, and (4) wide-spectrum reflective resistance.
FIGURE 1.5 Scheme of the evolution of the facade functions.
FIGURE 1.6 Scheme of a building envelope, type intelligent membrane. (1) Spectral-sensitive layer; (2) transparent structure carrying the envelope: (a) the facade membrane is switched on; (b) the facade membrane is switched off; (c) the roof membrane is switched off.
1.3 Summary Analysis of the Building–Surrounding Energy Interactions
2 Physics of Energy Conversions in the Building Envelope at Microscopic Level
FIGURE 2.1 Range of variation of the conductivity coefficient of materials used in thermotechnics, regarding their aggregate state and chemical composition. (1) pure metals; (2) alloys; (3) non-metals; (4) insulation system; (5) liquids; (6) gases.
2.1 Idealized Physical Model of the Building Envelope as an Energy-Exchanging Medium (Review of the Literature from Microscopic Point of View)
FIGURE 2.2 Variation of the specific heat capacity at low temperature: (1) approximation by means of Dulong/Petit law; (2) approximation by means of the Einstein model (quadratic approximation); (3) approximation using Debye model (the approximation is in agreement with the experimental evidence for Pb, Ag, KCl, Zn, NaCl, Cu, Al, CaF2, and C).
FIGURE 2.3 Longitudinal vibrations of atomic structures (Einstein waves).
FIGURE 2.4 Relation between the angular frequency and the wave number.
FIGURE 2.5 Comparison of the frequency spectra: (1) approximation of Einstein; (2) approximation of Debye; (3) prediction of Fine.
FIGURE 2.6 Location of the electron orbits and energy bands in the atomic structures of solids: (1) Monoatomic; (2) biatomic; (3) triatomic; (4) insulators; (5) semiconductors; (6) conductors.
FIGURE 2.7 Variation of the thermal characteristics of solids depending on the velocity cm: (1) coefficient of thermal conductivity; (2) coefficient of diffusivity; (3) volume density N/v0; (4) thermal capacity C = ρcp.
2.2 Conclusions and Generalizations Based on the Survey of Literature Published in the Field
2.3 Design of a Hypothetical Physical Model of Phonon Generation in Solids: Scatter of Solar Radiation within the Solid
2.3.1 Internal Ionization and Polarization Running in Solids (Formation of Temporary Electrodynamic Dipoles)
FIGURE 2.8 Examples of banned zone overcome.
FIGURE 2.9 A mechanism of absorption and emission of photons. (a) Elevation; (b) Alighting.
2.3.2 Hypothetical Mechanism of Energy Transfer in the Building Envelope Components
2.3.2.1 Physical Pattern of Energy Transfer within the Envelope Components
FIGURE 2.10 A model of scattering photon emission from the banned zone. The direction of the secondary radiation is determined by the location of the electron when it reaches the perihelion of the trajectory in the banned zone. Indicated exemplary initial positions of the electrons (from 1 ÷ 4) in which they absorb solar photons. The trajectories in the forbidden zone are simulated with APS “Derive 5”: (a) position 1, (b) position 2, (c) position 3, and (d) position 4.
FIGURE 2.11 Models of the behavior of phonons during photon irradiation of constructional materials: (1) a direct incoming solar flux; (2) photons emitted out of the body by the electrons in the banned area (reflected flow); (3, 4) photons carried inside the body by the electrons in the banned area; (5–8) isotropically de-energizing phonons emitted inside the body; (9) photons emitted to the interior (traversing).
2.3.3 Hypothetical Model of Energy Transfer through Solid Building Components: A Model of Lagging Temperature Gradient
FIGURE 2.12 Diagram of the propagation of photons emitted by phonons.
2.3.3_1 Model of Lagging Temperature Gradient
FIGURE 2.13 A scheme illustrating the interaction energy between the environment and the building envelope.
2.4 Micro–Macroscopic Assessment of the State of the Building Envelope
2.4.1 Microscopic Canonical Ensemble: Collective Macroscopic State
2.4.2 Introduced Macroscopic State Parameters of the Building Envelope Considered as a Physical Medium of the Electrothermodynamic System
2.4.2.1 Temperature Field and Gradient of the Lagrange Multiplier*
FIGURE 2.14 Distribution of temperature fields in 2D areas: (a) in a flat wall; (b) in the corner; (c) in a horizontal section of the envelope; (d) in a vertical section of the envelope.
FIGURE 2.15 Distribution of a temperature field on a flat vertical external wall: (a) Discrete values at points on the surface of the wall; (b) isotherms of the field.
FIGURE 2.16 Isolines of the field characteristics distribution in the Cartesian, cylindrical, and spherical coordinate systems.
2.4.2.2 Pressure Field
FIGURE 2.17 Types of pressure onto a vertical wall.
2.4.2.3 Field of the Electric Potential: Potential Function and Gradient of the Electric Potential
FIGURE 2.18 Distribution of electrons: (a) transition without Fermi-tail; (b) transition with a short Fermi-tail; and (c) transition with a long Fermi-tail.
2.4.2.4 Entropy: A Characteristic of Degeneration of the Heat Charges (Phonons) within the Envelope Control Volume
FIGURE 2.19 Reducing the energy of the phonons by increase in the local Lagrange multiplier in the range 29 ≥ β ≥ 40 eV−1, typical for normal operational conditions in the building envelope.
FIGURE 2.20 Reducing the energy of the typical phonons by an increase in the local Lagrange multiplier: (1) in (a) the distribution of energy, corresponding to the local Lagrange multiplier, (2) in (b) length of the dominant energy mode, (3) in (b) power of the dominant energy mode. (a) Evolution of the Spectrum of phonon’s energy as a function of the local Lagrange multiplier; (b) evolution of the energy of the dominating phonon as a function of the local Lagrange multiplier.
2.4.3 Conclusions on the General Methodological Approaches to the Study of an Electrothermomechanical System
3 Design of a Model of Energy Exchange Running between the Building Envelope and the Surroundings: Free Energy Potential
3.1 Energy-Exchange Models of the Building Envelope
TABLE 3.1 Types of Energy Impact Exerted by the Surroundings
3.2 Work Done in the Building Envelope and Energy-Exchange Models
3.2.1 Law of Conservation of the Energy Interactions between the Envelope Components and the Building Surroundings
3.2.2 Special Cases of Energy Interactions
3.2.2.1 Energy Model of Transfer of Entropy and Electric Charges
3.2.2.2 Energy Model of Entropy Transfer with or without Mass Transfer
3.3 Specification of the Structure of the Free Energy in the Components of the Building Envelope (Electrothermodynamic Potential of the System)
3.3.1 Finding the Structure of the Free Energy Function
3.3.1.1 Links between Entropy and the System Basic Parameters
3.4 Distribution of the Free Energy within the Building Envelope
FIGURE 3.1 Visualization of the free energy potential field characteristics in (a) Cartesian, (b) cylindrical, and (c) spherical coordinate systems.
3.4.1 State Parameters Subject to Determination via the Free Energy Function
4 Definition of the Macroscopic Characteristics of Transfer
TABLE 4.1 Quantitative Characteristics of Transfer Rates
TABLE 4.2 Quantitative Characteristics of Transfer Densities
4.1 General Law of Transfer
4.2 Physical Picture of the Transmission Phenomena
FIGURE 4.1 Streamline.
FIGURE 4.2 Stream pipe with (a) plane symmetry and (b) axial symmetry.
FIGURE 4.3 Stream pattern.
4.3 Conclusions
5 Numerical Study of Transfer in Building Envelope Components
5.1 Method of the Differential Relations
FIGURE 5.1 Geometry of the control volume.
5.2 Method of the Integral Forms
FIGURE 5.2 Border surfaces of the global area.
5.3 Weighted Residuals Methodology Employed to Assess the ETS Free Energy Function
5.3.1 Basic Stages of the Application of WRM in Evaluating Transport within the Envelope
FIGURE 5.3 Physical objects (pipe and wall) modeled as simplified global areas.
FIGURE 5.4 Discretization of a compound physical area.
FIGURE 5.5 Types of finite elements used for the discretization of physical objects and classification of the discrete analogues of finite element.
FIGURE 5.6 Linear, quadratic, and cubic shape functions.
FIGURE 5.7 Linear finite element in absolute and natural coordinates.
FIGURE 5.8 Plots of the approximating function in discrete analog elements: (a) in a two-noded element; (b) in a three-noded element; (c) in a four-noded element.
FIGURE 5.9 Distribution of the interpolating function in a 2D simple finite element.
FIGURE 5.10 Interpolating function in a 3D/simple element (tetrahedron).
5.3.1.1 One-Dimensional Simple Finite Element
5.3.1.2 Two-Dimensional Simple Finite Element in Cartesian Coordinates
5.3.1.3 Two-Dimensional Simple Finite Element in Cylindrical Coordinates
5.3.1.4 Three-Dimensional Simple Finite Element
5.3.2 Modeling of Transfer in a Finite Element Using a Matrix Equation (Galerkin Method)
5.3.3 Steady Transfer in One-Dimensional Finite Element
TABLE 5.1 Ordinary Differential Equations for One-Dimensional Transfer
5.3.3.1 Integral Form of the Balance of Energy Transfer through One-Dimensional Finite Element
FIGURE 5.11 One-dimensional global area.
5.3.3.2 Modified Matrix Equation of 1D Transfer
5.3.3.3 Transfer through 1D Simple Finite Element Presented in Cylindrical Coordinates
FIGURE 5.12 Boundary conditions in 1D simple finite element in cylindrical coordinates: (a-c) cylindrical elements with different heights; (d) plane of symmetry; (e) two-noded discrete analogue.
5.3.4 Steady Transfer in a 2D Finite Element
FIGURE 5.13 Boundary conditions in cylindrical coordinates valid for a 2D finite element.
5.3.4.1 Equation of a 2D Simple Finite Element in Cartesian Coordinates
FIGURE 5.14 Boundary conditions in 2D simple finite element in Cartesian coordinates.
5.3.4.2 Design of Transfer Equation in Cylindrical Coordinates regarding a Three-Noded 2D Finite Element
FIGURE 5.15 Boundary conditions in a 2D simplex finite element in cylindrical coordinates.
5.3.5 Transfer through a 3D Simple Finite Element
5.3.5.1 Design of the Matrix Equation of Transfer in Cartesian Coordinates
FIGURE 5.16 Three-dimensional simple finite element in Cartesian coordinates.
6 Initial and Boundary Conditions of a Solid Wall Element
6.1 Effects of the Environmental Air on the Building Envelope
FIGURE 6.1 Wall dehumidification via change of the state of a vapor–air mixture along a cold vertical wall.
6.1.1 Mass Transfer from the Building Envelope (Wall Dehumidification, Drying)
FIGURE 6.2 Wall humidification.
6.1.1.1 Processes Running at a Cold Wall
6.1.1.1.1 Wall Heating under Moisture Equilibrium within the Working Fluid (Direction A-2h)
6.1.1.1.2 Wall Cooling under Moisture Extraction by Air (Direction A-2h)
6.1.1.1.3 Adiabatic Processes (Direction (A − 2l))
6.1.1.2 Processes Running at a Cold Wall (Tw < TA)
6.1.1.2.1 Wall Heating and Humidification (under Air Cooling and Moisture Release) (Direction A-2h)
6.1.1.2.2 Transfer under Adiabatic Conditions (Direction A-2l)
6.2 Various Initial and Boundary Conditions of Solid Structural Elements
FIGURE 6.3 Boundary conditions at a vertical wall: (a) uniform distribution of the independent variables, (b) linear distribution of the independent variables, (c) two-dimensional distribution of the independent variables.
6.3 Design of Boundary Conditions of Solid Structural Elements
6.3.1 Boundary Conditions of Convective Transfer Directed to the Wall Internal Surface
6.3.2 Boundary Conditions at the Wall External Surface
FIGURE 6.4 Change of the boundary conditions due to building aerodynamics: (a) Axes symmetrical building and (b) cuboid building.
FIGURE 6.5 Boundary conditions determined by building overall dimensions and location of a structural element on the building facade: (a–c) Change in the length of circulation zone, depends on height of the building; (d, e) scheme components; and (f) table with the signs of pressure differences according to facade’s element placement.
FIGURE 6.6 Boundary conditions of the building cover: (a) Due to the wind and (b) b) due to temperature difference Te − Ti.
7 Engineering Methods of Estimating the Effect of the Surroundings on the Building Envelope: Control of the Heat Transfer through the Building Envelope (Arrangement of the Thermal Resistances within a Structure Consisting of Solid Wall Elements)
FIGURE 7.1 Arrangement of adiabatic and filter envelopes: (a) unilateral heat barrier; (b) bilateral heat barrier; (c) bilateral filter; (d) Trombe/Michelle wall: (1) capacity; (2) Fourier insulation; (3) reflective resistance; (4) wide-spectrum reflective resistance; (5) IR long-wave filter; (6) capacitive resistances; (7) air crevice (insulation); (8) window pane (UV/IR filter); (9) heat capacity.
7.1 Calculation of the Thermal Resistance of Solid Structural Elements
FIGURE 7.2 Restrictions imposed on the envelope dimensions: (a) optimization of the mean expenses NVc; (b) specification of envelope critical thickness. (1) initial investment KIn = f(δIns); (2) annual energy expenses TEn = f(δIns); (3) NVc—investment present value; (4) q = f(δIns); (5) Q = f(δIns).
FIGURE 7.3 Maximal admissible thickness of the thermal insulation. (Values of δec, calculated for different thermal resistance of the energy standard RRef, depending on the class CEEEnv and index IEEEnv of the energy efficiency of an envelope manufactured from an insulating material with λIns = 0.03 W/mK).
TABLE 7.1 Normative Values of the Heat Transfer Coefficient in EC
TABLE 7.2 Examples for the Application of the Suggested Methodology
TABLE 7.3 An Analysis of the Variants of the Building Preliminary Design
7.2 Solar Shading Devices (Shield) Calculation
FIGURE 7.4 Inversion of the designed object (the window contours are projected on the solar shading devices): (a) solar geometry on the facade; (b) determination of the window projections on the first and last day of solar protection.
FIGURE 7.5 Solar shading devices: (a) parabolic cylinder with an axis parallel to Oy; (b) hemisphere with a plane parallel to Oz; (c) ellipsoid with a main axis parallel to Oz.
FIGURE 7.6 Solar shading devices: (a) parabolic cylinder with an axis parallel to Oy; (b) cylinder with an axis parallel to Oy.
7.3 Modeling of Heat Exchange between a Solar Shading Device, a Window, and the Surroundings
FIGURE 7.7 Radiant heat exchange between a solar shading device, a window, and the surroundings: (1) solar shading device; (2) surroundings; (3) window.
FIGURE 7.8 Equivalent electrical analog system: (a) Three-link analog scheme of modeling the heat exchange in a 3D closed volume (a cavern); (b) two-pole electrical equivalent.
TABLE 7.4 Quantities of Heat-Electrical Analogy
7.3.1 Mathematical Model
7.4 Design of Minimal-Admissible Light-Transmitting Envelope Apertures Using the Coefficient of Daylight (CDL)
7.4.1 Energy and Visual Comfort
FIGURE 7.9 Effect of the coefficient of transparency of glazed structural elements on the amount of used energy: (1) air-conditioning; (2) illumination; (3) total energy consumption.
FIGURE 7.10 Regulation of the power of the visual comfort system with respect to the demand for energy. (a) Zero demand zone, (b) indoor lighting, and (c) outdoor lighting.
7.4.2 Calculation of the Coefficient of Daylight (CDL)
FIGURE 7.11 Stereometry of the interior natural illuminance.
FIGURE 7.12 Stepwise minimization of window overall dimensions. (The distribution of the coefficient of daylight (CDL) in room no 213 of a student’s hostel is found using the theoretical model.)
FIGURE 7.13 Distribution of CDL, assessed using the theoretical model: (a) actual situation (a window with dimensions 1.7 × 3.0 m); (b) recovered premises with windows 1.7 × 1.2 m.
7.5 Method of Reducing the Tribute of the Construction and the Thermal Bridges to the Energy Inefficiency
TABLE 7.5 Indicative Targets of Household Energy Savings
7.5.1 Characteristics of Heat Transfer through Solid Inhomogeneous Multilayer Walls
FIGURE 7.14 Structural inhomogeneity of solid walls due to technological errors: simulation of heat transfer in an inhomogeneous physical medium using a specialized software.
FIGURE 7.15 Structural inhomogeneities due to components with different heat conductivity: (a) brick wall; (b) panel wall; (c) cross section of a brick wall; (d) node of structural system as a thermal bridge; (e) multilayer wall: (1) steel bar–reinforced column (λ = 1.63 W/mK); (2) steel bar–reinforced plate (λ = 1.45 W/mK); (3) steel bar–reinforced beam (λ = 1.63 W/mK); (4) brick wall (λ = 0.52 W/mK); (5) steel bar–reinforced panel, sandwich type (Uw = W/m2K); (6) glazed element (Unp = 2.6 W/m2K stuck together wooden window); (7) lime-cement coating (λ = 0.81 W/mK); (8) internal stucco (λ = W/mK); (9) foaming polystyrene (λ = 0.03 W/mK); (10) steel bar–reinforced concrete (λ = 1.63 xW/mK).
7.5.2 Method Described Step by Step
7.5.3 Description of the Energy Standard of the Construction (EEConst)
FIGURE 7.16 Facade of an inspected building UPI XXIII, No. 69, Dragitchevo village: (a) northern facade; (b) eastern facade; (c) southern facade; (d) western facade.
7.5.4 Employment of the Energy Standard to Assess How the Building Structure Affects the Energy Efficiency
FIGURE 7.17 Buildings flat pattern: (a) a map of facade thermal bridges located within the envelope; (b) building energy standard.
FIGURE 7.18 Decrease of the length of the linear thermal bridges via construction modification. (a) Skeleton structure, and (b) skeleton-beam structure.
FIGURE 7.19 Effect of the construction on the value of the energy efficiency index IEEConst. (a) Panel structure, (b) PPL-package lifted plates, and (c) skeleton-beam structure.
TABLE 7.6 Influence of Structural System of the Building on Its Energy Efficiency by Index IEEConst
TABLE 7.7 Table of the Correspondence of the Index and Class of Energy Efficiency for the Building Structural System
7.6 Assessment of Leaks in the Building Envelope and the Air-Conditioning Systems
TABLE 7.8 Basic Characteristics of the Used Methods
7.6.1 Measuring Equipment of the Method “Delta-Q”
FIGURE 7.20 Equipment arrangement: (a) AH out of the thermal zone; (b) AH inside the thermal zone: (1) test chamber; (2) return fan; (3) supply fan; (4) air handler; (5) measuring equipment; (6) supply ducts; (7) return duct.
7.6.2 Modified Balance Equation of Leaks in Air Ducts, Air-Conditioning Station, and Envelope
7.6.3 Delta-Q Procedure: Data Collection and Manipulation
TABLE 7.9 Coefficients α and ß of the Modified Delta-Q Balance Equations
FIGURE 7.21 The primary data obtained by the measuring station according to the time.
FIGURE 7.22 A full cycle, consisting of depressurization and pressurization.
FIGURE 7.23 Distribution Stata plot, corresponding to 4230 points.
7.6.4 Normalization of the Collected Data
FIGURE 7.24 Stata graph of the normalized Q-p data distribution.
FIGURE 7.25 Graph of Qmax–pmax relation.
FIGURE 7.26 Plot of the model for the prediction of Q-p, obtained by “DERIVE 6.”
FIGURE 7.27 “DERIVE 6” plot of the ΔQ subtraction.
7.7 Mathematical Model of the Environmental Sustainability of Buildings
7.7.1 General Structure of the Model
7.7.2 Selection of an Ecological Standard: Table of Correspondence
FIGURE 7.28 Number of buildings certified in the United States according to the LEED method, period 1998–2010.
FIGURE 7.29 Weighting coefficients accounting for the tribute of the jth factor to the total ecological sustainability of the standard, employing methods BREEAM and LEED: (1) management; (2) indoor; (3) energy; (4) transport; (5) waters; (6) materials; (7) wastes; (8) earth and ecology; (9) pollutants; (10) innovations.
FIGURE 7.30 Building assessments performed using old versions of methods LEED and BREEAM differ from each other (the higher points are in LEED).
TABLE 7.10 New Versions of the Systems LEED 3.0 (LEED 2009), BREEAM 2008 (2009) Make Standards Closer—They Use Identical Ecological Factors with Close Weighting Coefficients
TABLE 7.11 Ecological Models Used by the Method LEED, V3 for Different Types of Building Activity—Maximal Number of Points
TABLE 7.12 Weighting Coefficients of Ecological Models Used by the LEED, V3 Method to Rate Different Buildings
TABLE 7.13 Mathematical Ecological Models of Buildings with Different Structure, Derived from the General Ecological Model, which Employs Indices of Ecological Sustainability
TABLE 7.14 Table of Correspondence
7.7.3 Comparison of Systems Rating the Ecological Sustainability in Conformity with the General Criteria
TABLE 7.15 Comparison of the Levels in the Rating Scales of Well-Known Methods
TABLE 7.16 Table of Comparison between the Methods Involving General-Functional Criteria
7.8 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
8 Applications (Solved Tasks and Tables)
Example 8.1
8.1 Matrix of Conductivity [K(1)]
FIGURE 8.1 Boundary condition in a 1D simple finite element.
8.2 Matrix of Surface Properties [F(1)]
8.3 Generalized Matrix of the Element Conductivity [G(1)] = [K(1)] + [F(1)]
8.4 Vector of a Load Due to Recuperation Sources
8.5 Vector of a Load due to Convection to the Surrounding Matter
8.6 Vector of a Load due to a Direct Flux
8.6.1 Design and Solution of the Matrix Equation
TABLE 8.1 Influence of the Cross-Sectional Shape of 1D Final Element
Example 8.2
FIGURE 8.2 Boundary conditions in a 1D simple finite element specified in cylindrical coordinates.
Example 8.3
FIGURE 8.3 Boundary conditions in a 2D simple finite element in Cartesian coordinates.
TABLE 8.2 Coefficients of the Approximating Functions
Example 8.4
FIGURE 8.4 Boundary conditions in a 1D simple finite element in cylindrical coordinates.
TABLE 8.3 Coefficients of the Approximating Functions
Example 8.5
FIGURE 8.5 Boundary conditions in a 3D simple finite element in Cartesian coordinates.
TABLE 8.4 Coefficients of the Approximating Functions
Example 8.6: (Transfer in 1D Global Area)
FIGURE 8.6 One-dimensional global area.
FIGURE 8.7 Design of the global matrix of the matrix equations.
Example 8.7: (Transfer in a 2D Area)
FIGURE 8.8 Two-dimensional global area.
TABLE 8.5 Sequence of Ordering the Nodes of Each Final Element in 2D Area
FIGURE 8.9 Addressing the conductivity matrix of a finite element.
FIGURE 8.10 Preaddressing of the conductivity matrix of the global area.
TABLE 8.6 Vectors of the Load of the Finite Elements of the 2D Area
FIGURE 8.11 Preaddressing the load vector.
Example 8.8
FIGURE 8.12 Structure of the building envelope—before.
FIGURE 8.13 Unfolding of the building facade, estimated building.
TABLE 8.7 Description of the Elements of the Envelope and Their Contribution to Heat Transfer of the Building
Example 8.9
TABLE 8.8 Determination of the Class of Energy Efficiency of a Building Envelope
TABLE 8.9 Correlation Table between the Index and Class of Energy Efficiency of Building Envelope: IEEEnv and CEEEnv
FIGURE 8.14 Structure of the building envelope—after.
TABLE 8.10 Correspondence between the Class and Index of Energy Efficiency and Assessments of and δec
TABLE 8.11 Physical Properties of the Materials
TABLE 8.12 Physical Properties of the Crystal Materials
TABLE 8.13 Coefficients of the Mathematical Model of the Shading Devices of Second Degree

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