Ecological Risk Assessment 2nd Edition by Glenn Suter 0367577763 9780367577766
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ISBN 10: 0367577763
ISBN 13: 9780367577766
Author: Glenn W. Suter Ii
The definitive reference in its field, Ecological Risk Assessment, Second Edition details the latest advances in science and practice. In the fourteen years since the publication of the best-selling first edition, ecological risk assessment (ERA) has moved from the margins into the spotlight. It is now commonly applied to the regulation
Table of contents:
Part I: Introduction to Ecological Risk Assessment
1: Defining the Field
1.1 PREDICTIVE VS. RETROSPECTIVE RISK ASSESSMENT
1.2 RISKS, BENEFITS, AND COSTS
1.3 DECISIONS TO BE SUPPORTED
1.3.1 Prioritization of Hazards
1.3.2 Comparison of Alternative Actions
1.3.3 Permitting Releases
1.3.3.1 Chemicals
1.3.3 2 Effluents and Wastes
1.3.3.3 New Organisms
1.3.3 4 Items in International Trade
1.3.4 Limiting Loading
1.3.6 Permitting and Managing Land Uses
1.3.7 Species Management
1.3.8 Setting Damages
1.4 SOCIOPOLITICAL PURPOSES OF RISK ASSESSMENT
1.5 CAST OF CHARACTERS
1.5.1 AsSESSORS
1.5.2 Risk Managers
1.5.3 StaKeholders
2: Other Types of Assessments
2.1 MONITORING STATUS AND TRENDS
2.2 SETTING STANDARDS
2.3 LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT
2.4 PROHIBITIONS
2.5 TECHNOLOGY-BASED RULES
2.6 BEST PRACTICES, RULES, OR GUIDANCE
2.7 PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE
2.8 ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT
2.9 ANALOGY
2.10 ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT
2.11 HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT
2.12 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
2.13 SUMMARY
3: Ecological Risk Assessment Frameworks
3.1 BASIC US EPA FRAMEWORK
3.2 ALTERNATIVE FRAMEWORKS
3.2.1 WHO-Integrated Framework
3.2.2 Multiple Activities
3.2.3 Ecological Epidemiology
3.2.4 Causal Chain Framework
3.3 EXTENDED FRAMEWORKS
3.4 ITERATIVE ASSESSMENT
3.4.1 Screening vs. Definitive Assessments
3.4.2 Baseline vs. Alternatives Assessments
3.4.3 Iterative Assessment as Adaptive Management
3.5 PROBLEM-SPECIFIC FRAMEWORKS
3.6 CONCLUSIONS
Chapter 4 Ecological Epidemiology and Causal Analysis
4.1 Biological Surveys
4.2 Biological Assessment
4.3 Causal Analysis
4.3.1 Identifying Candidate Causes
4.3.1.1 What is a Cause?
4.3.1.2 Developing the List
4.3.1.3 Developing Maps and Conceptual Models
4.3.2 Analyzing the Evidence
4.3.2.1 Evidence of Co-occurrence
4.3.2.2 Evidence of Sufficiency
4.3.2.3 Evidence of Temporality
4.3.2.4 Evidence from Manipulation
4.3.2.5 Evidence of Coherence
4.3.3 Characterizing Causes
4.3.3.1 Elimination
4.3.3.2 Diagnostic Protocols and Keys
4.3.3.3 Koch’s Postulates
4.3.3.4 Strength-of-Evidence Analysis
4.3.4 Iteration of Causal Analysis
4.4 Identifying Sources and Management Alternatives
4.5 Risk Assessment in Ecoepidemiology
4.6 Summary
Chapter 5 Variability, Uncertainty, and Probability
5.1 Sources of Unpredictability
5.1.1 Variability
5.1.2 Uncertainty
5.1.3 Variability Uncertainty Dichotomy
5.1.4 Combined Variability and Uncertainty
5.1.5 Error
5.1.6 Ignorance and Confusion
5.1.7 Summary of Sources
5.2 What is Probability?
5.2.1 Types of Probability: Frequency vs. Belief
5.2.1.1 Frequency
5.2.1.2 Belief
5.2.2 Types of Probability: Categorical vs. Conditional
5.3 Ways to Analyze Probabilities
5.3.1 Frequentist Statistics
5.3.2 Bayesian Statistics
5.3.3 Resampling Statistics
5.3.4 Other Approaches
5.4 Why Use Probabilistic Analyses?
5.4.1 Desire to Ensure Safety
5.4.2 Desire to Avoid Excessive Conservatism
5.4.3 Desire to Acknowledge and Present Uncertainty
5.4.4 Need to Estimate a Probabilistic Endpoint
5.4.5 Planning Sampling and Testing.
5.4.6 Comparing Hypotheses and Associated Models
5.4.7 Aiding Decision Making
5.4.8 Summary of Reasons
5.5 Techniques for Analysis of Variability and Uncertainty
5.5.1 Uncertainty Factors
5.5.2 Confidence Intervals
5.5.3 Data Distributions
5.5.4 Statistical Modeling
5.5.5 Monte Carlo Analysis and Uncertainty Propagation
5.5.6 Nested Monte Carlo Analysis
5.5.7 Sensitivity Analysis
5.5.8 Listing and Qualitative Evaluation
5.6 Probability in the Risk Assessment Process
5.6.1 Defining Exposure Distributions
5.6.2 Defining Effects Distributions
5.6.3 Estimating Risk Distributions
5.7 Parameters to Treat as Uncertain
5.8 Summary
Chapter 6 Dimensions, Scales, and Levels of Organization
6.1 Levels of Organization
6.2 Spatial and Temporal Scales
6.3 Regional Scale
6.4 Dimensions
6.4.1 Abundance or Intensity of the Agent.
6.4.2 Temporal Duration
6.4.3 Space
6.4.4 Proportion Affected
6.4.5 Severity of the Effects
6.4.6 Type of Effect
6.4.7 What to do with Multiple Dimensions?
Chapter 7 Modes and Mechanisms of Action
7.1 Chemical Modes and Mechanisms
7.2 Testing for Mechanisms
7.3 Nonchemical Modes and Mechanisms
Chapter 8 Mixed and Multiple Agents.
8.1 Chemical Mixtures
8.1.1 Methods Based on Whole Mixtures
8.1.2 Methods Based on Tests of Components
8.1.2.1 Simple Similar Action and Concentration Addition
8.1.2.2 Independent Action and Response Addition
8.1.2.3 Interactive Action
8.1.2.4 Multiple Chemicals and Multiple Species
8.1.3 Integration of Complex Chemical Mixtures
8.2 Multiple and Diverse Agents
8.2.1 Categorize and Combine Agents.
8.2.2 Determine Spatial and Temporal Overlap
8.2.3 Define Effects and Mode of Action
8.2.4 Screen Effects
8.2.5 Simple Additive Effects
8.2.6 Additive Exposures
8.2.7 Mechanistic Models of Combined Effects
8.2.8 Integration of Complex Sets of Agents and Activities
Chapter 9 Quality Assurance
9.1 Data Quality
9.1.1 Primary Data
9.1.2 Secondary Data
9.1.3 Defaults and Assumptions
9.1.4 Representing Data Quality
9.1.5 Data Management
9.2 Model Quality
9.3 Quality of Probabilistic Analyses
9.4 Assessment Quality
9.4.1 Process Quality
9.4.2 Peer Review of the Assessment
9.4.3 Replication of Assessments
9.5 Summary
Part II Planning and Problem Formulation
Chapter 10 Impetus and Mandate
Chapter 11 Goals and Objectives
Chapter 12 Management Options
Chapter 13 Agents and Sources
13.1 Emissions
13.2 Activities and Programs
13.3 Sources of Causes
13.4 Properties of the Agent
13.5 Sources of Indirect Exposure and Effects
13.6 Screening Sources and Agents
Chapter 14 Environmental Description
Chapter 15 Exposure Scenarios
Chapter 16 Assessment Endpoints.
16.1 Assessment Endpoints and Levels of Organization
16.2 Generic Assessment Endpoints
16.2.1 Generic Endpoints Based on Policy Judgments
16.2.2 Functionally Defined Generic Endpoints
16.2.3 Applying Generic Endpoints
16.3 Making Generic Assessment Endpoints Specific
16.4 Endpoints Based on Objectives Hierarchies
Chapter 17 Conceptual Models
17.1 Uses of Conceptual Models
17.2 Forms of Conceptual Models
17.3 Creating Conceptual Models
17.4 Linkage to Other Conceptual Models
Chapter 18 Analysis Plans
18.1 Choosing Measures of Exposure, Effects, and Environmental Conditions
18.2 Reference Sites and Reference Information
18.2.1 Information Concerning the Precontamination or Predisturbance State
18.2.2 Model-Derived Information
18.2.3 Information Concerning Other Sites
18.2.4 Information Concerning a Regional Reference
18.2.5 Gradients as Reference
18.2.6 Positive Reference Information
18.2.7 Goals as an Alternative to Reference
Part III Analysis of Exposure
Chapter 19 Source Identification and Characterization
19.1 Sources and the Environment
19.2 Unknown Sources
19.3 Summary
Chapter 20 Sampling, Analysis, and Assays
20.1 Sampling and Chemical Analysis of Media
20.2 Sampling and Sample Preparation
20.3 Encountered Data
20.4 Screening Analyses
20.5 Analysis of Cofactors
20.6 Water
20.7 Sediment
20.8 Soil
20.9 Biota and Biomarkers
20.10 Bioassays
20.11 Biosurveys
20.12 Sampling, Analysis, and Probabilities
20.13 Conclusions
Chapter 21 Mathematical Models of Chemical Transport and Fate
21.1 Objectives
21.2 Basic Modeling Concepts
21.2.1 Emissions or Loadings
21.2.2 Point and Nonpoint Sources
21.2.3 Steady-State and Non-Steady-State Sources
21.2.4 Importance of Scale
21.3 Formulating Mass Balance Models
21.3.1 Defining Compartments
21.3.2 Reaction Rates
21.3.3 Transport Rates
21.3.4 Emissions
21.3.5 Solutions to the Mass Balance Equation
21.3.6 Complexity, Validity, and Confidence Limits
21.4 Illustration of a Simple Mass Balance Model
21.4.1 The System Being Modeled
21.4.2 Concentration Calculation
21.4.2.1 Chemical Input Rate
21.4.2.2 Partitioning between Water, Particles, and Fish
21.4.2.3 Outflow in Water
21.4.2.4 Outflow in Particles
21.4.2.5 Reaction
21.4.2.6 Deposition to Sediment
21.4.2.7 Evaporation
21.4.2.8 Combined Loss Processes
21.4.3 Fugacity Calculation
21.4.4 Discussion
21.5 Chemicals of Concern and Models Simulating their Behavior
21.5.1 General Multimedia Models
21.5.1.1 Level I
21.5.1.2 Level II.
21.5.1.3 Level III
21.5.1.4 Level IV
21.5.1.5 Fugacity Models
21.5.1.6 CalTOX Model.
21.5.1.7 Simplebox Model
21.5.1.8 Regional, Continental, and Global-Scale Models
21.5.2 Models Specific to Environmental Media
21.5.2.1 Plume Models in General
21.5.2.2 Atmospheric Models
21.5.2.3 Aquatic Models
21.5.2.4 Soil Models
21.5.2.5 Fish Uptake and Food Chain Models
21.5.2.6 Miscellaneous Models
21.5.3 Models Specific to Chemical Classes
21.5.3.1 Agricultural Pesticides
21.5.3.2 Veterinary Medicines
21.5.3.3 Biocides
21.5.3.4 Metals
21.6 Concluding Thoughts on Selecting and Applying Models
Chapter 22 Exposure to Chemicals and Other Agents
22.1 Exposure Models.
22.2 Exposure to Chemicals in Surface Water
22.3 Exposure to Chemicals in Sediment
22.4 Exposure to Contaminants in Soil
22.4.1 Chemical Analyses to Estimate Exposure
22.4.1.1 Partial Chemical Extraction and Normalization
22.4.1.2 Input Form of the Chemical
24.4.1.3 Chemical Interactions
24.4.1.4 Nonaqueous Phase Liquids
22.4.2 Soil Depth Profile
22.5 Exposure of Terrestrial Plants.
22.5.1 Rooting Depth.
22.5.2 Rhizosphere
22.5.3 Wetland Plant Exposures.
22.5.4 Soil Properties and Exposure of Plants
22.5.5 Plant Interspecies Differences
22.5.6 Plant Exposure in Air
22.6 Exposure of Soil Invertebrates
22.6.1 Depth of Exposure and Ingested Material
22.6.2 Soil Properties and Chemical Interactions
22.7 Exposure of Soil Microbial Communities
22.8 Exposure of Wildlife
22.8.1 Exposure Models Based on External Measures
22.8.1.1 Dermal Exposure
22.8.1.2 Inhalation Exposure
22.8.1.3 Oral Exposure
22.8.1.4 Spatial Issues in Wildlife Exposure
22.8.1.5 Temporal Issues in Wildlife Exposure
22.8.1.6 Exposure Modifying Factors
22.8.2 Parameters for Estimation of Exposure
22.8.2.1 Body Weight
22.8.2.2 Food and Water Consumption Rates
22.8.2.3 Inhalation Rates
22.8.2.4 Soil and Sediment Consumption
22.8.2.5 Home Range and Territory Size
22.9 Uptake Models
22.9.1 Aquatic Organism Uptake
22.9.1.1 Neutral Organics
22.9.1.2 Ionizing Organic Chemicals
22.9.1.3 Inorganic and Organometalic Chemicals
22.9.1.4 Aquatic Plants
22.9.1.5 Aquatic Toxicokinetics
22.9.2 Benthic Invertebrate Uptake
22.9.3 Terrestrial Plant Uptake
22.9.3.1 Soil Uptake
22.9.3.2 Empirical Models of Inorganic Chemicals
22.9.3.3 Empirical Models for Organic Chemicals
22.9.3.4 Surface Contamination
22.9.3.5 Plant Tissue Type
22.9.3.6 Mechanistic Models
22.9.4 Earthworm Uptake
22.9.5 Terrestrial Arthropod Uptake
22.9.6 Terrestrial Vertebrate Uptake
22.10 Exposure to Petroleum and other Chemical Mixtures
22.11 Exposure to Natural Extreme Events
22.12 Exposure to Organisms
22.13 Probability and Exposure Models
22.14 Presenting the Exposure Characterization
Part IV Analysis of Effects
Chapter 23 Exposure-Response Relationships
23.1 Approaches to Exposure-Response
23.1.1 Mechanistic Models
23.1.2 Regression Models
23.1.3 Statistical Significance
23.1.4 Interpolation
23.1.5 Effect Level and Confidence
23.2 Issues in Exposure-Response
23.2.1 Thresholds and Benchmarks
23.2.2 Time as Exposure and Response
23.2.3 Combined Concentration and Duration
23.2.4 Nonmonotonic Relationships
23.2.5 Categorical Variables
23.2.6 Exposure-Response from Field Data
23.2.7 Residue-Response Relationships
23.3 Toxicodynamics-Mechanistic Internal Exposure-Response
23.3.1 Toxicodynamics of Metals on Gills
23.4 Indirect Effects
Chapter 24 Testing
24.1 Testing Issues
24.2 Chemical or Material Tests
24.2.1 Aquatic Tests
24.2.2 Sediment Tests
24.2.3 Soil Tests
24.2.4 Oral and Other Wildlife Exposures
24.3 Microcosms and Mesocosms
24.4 Effluent Tests
24.5 Media Tests
24.5.1 Contaminated Water Tests
24.5.2 Contaminated Sediment Tests
24.5.3 Contaminated Soil Tests
24.5.4 Ambient Media Tests with Wildlife
24.6 Field Tests
24.6.1 Aquatic Field Tests
24.6.2 Field Tests of Plants and Soil Organisms
24.6.3 Wildlife Field Tests.
24.7 Testing Organisms
24.8 Testing Other Nonchemical Agents
24.9 Summary of Testing
Chapter 25 Biological Surveys
25.1 Aquatic Biological Surveys
25.1.1 Periphyton
25.1.2 Plankton
25.1.3 Fish.
25.1.4 Benthic Invertebrates.
25.2 Terrestrial Biological Surveys.
25.2.1 Soil Biological Surveys
25.2.2 Wildlife Surveys
25.2.3 Terrestrial Plant Surveys
25.3 Physiological, Histological, and Morphological Effects.
25.4 Uncertainties in Biological Surveys
25.5 Summary
Chapter 26 Organism-Level Extrapolation Models.
26.1 Structure-Activity Relationships.
26.1.1 Chemical Domains for SARs
26.1.2 Approaches for SARs.
26.1.3 State of SARs
26.2 Effects Extrapolation Approaches
26.2.1 Classification and Selection
26.2.2 Factors.
26.2.3 Species Sensitivity Distributions.
26.2.4 Regression Models
26.2.5 Temporal Extrapolation of Exposure-Response Models
26.2.6 Factors Derived from Statistical Models.
26.2.7 Allometric Scaling
26.2.8 Toxicokinetic Modeling for Extrapolation
26.2.9 Multiple and Combined Approaches
26.3 Extrapolations for Particular Biotas
26.3.1 Aquatic Biota
26.3.2 Benthic Invertebrates.
26.3.3 Wildlife
26.3.4 Soil Invertebrates and Plants
26.3.5 Soil Processes
26.3.6 Water Chemistry
26.3.7 Soil Properties
26.3.8 Laboratory to Field
26.4 Summary
Chapter 27 Population Modeling
27.1 Basic Concepts and Definitions
27.1.1 Population-Level Assessment Endpoints
27.1.2 Implications of Life History for Population-Level Ecological Risk Assessment
27.1.3 Representation and Propagation of Uncertainty
27.1.4 Density Dependence
27.2 Approaches to Population Analysis
27.2.1 Potential Population Growth Rate
27.2.2 Projection Matrices
27.2.3 Aggregated Models.
27.2.4 Metapopulation Models
27.2.5 Individual-Based Models
27.3 Applications to Toxic Chemicals
27.3.1 Quantifying Uncertainties in Individual-to-Population Extrapolations
27.3.2 Life History-Based Ecological Risk Assessment
27.3.3 Quantifying Impacts of Chemical Exposures on Risk of Extinction.
27.3.4 Quantifying Impacts of Chemicals on Metapopulations
27.3.5 Individual-Based Models
27.4 Future of Population Modeling in Ecological Risk Assessment
Chapter 28 Ecosystem Effects Modeling
28.1 An Ecosystem Paradigm
28.2 Ecosystem Risk Assessment
28.2.1 Ecosystem Assessment Endpoints
28.3 Ecosystem Simulation Modeling
28.3.1 Physical Ecosystem Models
28.3.2 Ecosystem Network Analysis
28.3.3 Compartment Models.
28.3.4 Existing Ecosystem Risk Models
28.3.4.1 AQUATOX
28.3.4.2 CASM
28.3.4.3 IFEM
28.4 Model Selection, Adaptation, and Development
28.4.1 Model Selection
28.4.2 Model Adaptation and Development
28.4.2.1 Model Structure
28.4.2.2 Governing Equations
28.4.2.3 Scaling
28.4.2.4 Exposure-Response Functions
28.4.2.5 Data
28.5 Innovations in Ecosystem Modeling
28.5.1 Structurally Dynamic Models
28.5.2 Interactive Modeling Platforms
28.5.3 Network-Enabled Ecosystem Models.
28.5.4 Ecosystem Animation
28.6 Ecosystem Models, Risk Assessment, and Decision making
28.6.1 Model Results and NOECs
28.6.2 Atrazine Levels of Concern
28.7 Models or Modelers
Part V Risk Characterization
Chapter 29 Criteria and Benchmarks
29.1 Criteria
29.2 Screening Benchmarks
29.2.1 Criteria as Screening Benchmarks
29.2.2 Tier II Values
29.2.3 Benchmarks Based on Exposure-Response Models
29.2.4 Thresholds for Statistical Significance
29.2.5 Test Endpoints with Safety Factors
29.2.6 Distributions of Effects Levels
29.2.7 Equilibrium Partitioning Benchmarks
29.2.8 Averaged Values as Benchmarks
29.2.9 Ecoepidemiological Benchmarks
29.2.10 Summary of Screening Benchmarks
Chapter 30 Integrating Exposure and Exposure-Response
30.1 Quotient Methods
30.2 Exposure is Distributed and Response is Fixed
30.3 Both Exposure and Response are Distributed
30.4 Integrated Simulation Models
30.5 Integration of Sense and Nonsense
30.6 Integration in Space
30.7 Examples
30.7.1 Shrews on a Mercury-Contaminated Site
30.7.2 Egrets and Eagles in South Florida
30.7.3 Egrets and Herons in Hong Kong
30.7.4 Bioaccumulative Contaminants in a Stream
30.7.5 Secondary Poisoning in Hawaii
30.7.6 Atrazine
30.7.7 Warming Subalpine Forests
30.8 Summary
Chapter 31 Screening Characterization
31.1 Screening Chemicals and Other Agents
31.1.1 Quotients
31.1.2 Scoring Systems
31.1.3 Screening for Properties
31.1.4 Logical Criteria
31.2 Screening Sites
31.2.1 Screening Chemicals at Sites
31.2.1.1 Screening Against Background
31.2.1.2 Screening Against Detection Limits
31.2.1.3 Screening Against Waste Constituents
31.2.1.4 Screening Against Physical-Chemical Properties
31.2.1.5 Screening Against Ecotoxicological Benchmarks
31.2.1.6 Screening Species Against Area
31.2.2 Exposure Concentrations for Sites
31.2.3 Screening Media
31.2.4 Screening Receptors
31.2.5 Screening Sites
31.2.6 Data Adequacy and Uncertainties
31.2.7 Presentation of a Site Screening Assessment
31.3 Examples
Chapter 32 Definitive Risk Characterization by Weighing the Evidence
32.1 Weighing Evidence
32.2 Sediment Quality Triad: A Simple and Clear Inference Method
32.3 Inference to the Best Conclusion at Contaminated Sites
32.3.1 Single-Chemical Toxicity
32.3.1.1 Aquatic Organisms
32.3.1.2 Benthic Invertebrates
32.3.1.3 Soil Exposure of Plants, Invertebrates, and Microbial Communities
32.3.1.4 Multimedia Exposure of Wildlife
32.3.1.5 Body Burdens of Endpoint Organisms
32.3.2 Ambient Media Toxicity Tests
32.3.3 Biological Surveys
32.3.4 Biomarkers and Pathologies
32.3.5 Weight of Evidence
32.3.5.1 Weighting Considerations
32.3.6 Risk Estimation
32.3.7 Future Risks
32.4 Examples
32.4.1 Characterizing Contaminated Site Risks
32.4.2 Characterizing Contaminated Sediment Risks
32.4.3 Characterizing Wildlife Risks
32.4.4 Characterizing Pesticide Risks
32.4.5 Characterizing Effluent Risks
32.5 Interpretation
Chapter 33 Comparative Risk Characterization.
33.1 Methods of Comparative Risk Characterization
33.1.1 Risk Ranking
33.1.2 Risk Classification
33.1.3 Relative Risk Scaling
33.1.4 Relative Risk Estimation
33.1.5 Net Environmental Benefits Analysis
33.1.6 Economic Units
33.1.7 Reporting Comparative Risk
33.2 Comparison and Uncertainty.
33.3 Summary
Chapter 34 Characterizing Variability, Uncertainty, and Incomplete Knowledge
34.1 Characterizing Variability
34.2 Characterizing Uncertainty
34.3 Uncertainty and Weight of Evidence
34.4 Biases
34.5 Limitations
34.6 Conclusions
Part VI Risk Management
Chapter 35 Reporting and Communicating Ecological Risks
35.1 Reporting Ecological Risks
35.2 Communicating Ecological Risks
Chapter 36 Decision Making and Ecological Risks
36.1 Preventing Exceedence of Standards
36.2 Preventing Adverse Effects
36.3 Minimizing Risks
36.4 Assuring Environmental Benefits
36.5 Maximizing Cost-Effectiveness
36.6 Balancing Costs and Benefits
36.7 Decision Analysis
36.8 Miscellaneous and Ad Hoc Considerations
Chapter 37 Integration of Human Health Risk Assessment
37.1 Wildlife as Sentinels
37.2 Integrated Analysis of Human and Ecological Risks.
37.2.1 Coherent Expression of Assessment Results
37.2.2 Interdependence
37.2.3 Quality
37.2.4 Efficiency
37.3 Environmental Condition and Human Welfare
37.4 Summary
Chapter 38 Integration of Risk, Law, Ethics, Economics, and Preferences
38.1 Ecological Risk and Law
38.2 Ecological Risk and Economics
38.3 Ecological Risk and Ethics
38.4 Ecological Risk, Stakeholder Preferences, and Public Opinion
38.5 Conclusions
Chapter 39 Monitoring the Results of Risk Management
Part VII: The Future of Ecological Risk Assessment
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