Sleep in Children Developmental Changes in Sleep Patterns 2nd Edition by Carole Marcus, John Carroll, David Donnelly, Gerald Loughlin 1420060805 9781420060805

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ISBN 10: 1420060805

ISBN 13: 9781420060805

Author: Carole Marcus, John L. Carroll, David Donnelly, Gerald M. Loughlin

Infants and children spend one- to two-thirds of their life asleep. Despite this, very little attention has been paid to understanding both normal sleep and sleep-related abnormalities during child development. There are profound changes in sleep and circadian rhythm during growth and maturation. Sleep is particularly important in children, due to

Sleep in Children Developmental Changes in Sleep Patterns 2nd Table of contents:

1 Neurophysiological Basis and Behavior of Early Sleep Development

I. Introduction

II. General Principles of Sleep-Wake Control

A. REM Sleep

B. NREM Sleep

C. Between-Sleep State Transition

D. Waking and Sleep Onset Promotion

III. Sleep Development During Early Ontogenesis: Animal Studies

A. Development of Brain Structures Involved in Sleep Control

B. Development of Behavioral States in Animals

IV. Development of Behavioral States During Human Ontogenesis

A. Fetal Life

B. Early Postnatal Ontogenesis: From Premature to Full-Term Newborns

C. The First Year of Life

D. From Two to Five Years

V. The Development of Sleep-Wake Rhythm

VI. Early Sleep-Wake Regulation

VII. Awakening

References

2 Ontogeny of EEG Sleep

I. Introduction

II. Caveats Concerning Neurophysiologic Interpretation of State

III. General Comments on Recording Techniques and Instrumentation for Neonates and Infants

IV. Maturation of Electrographic Patterns in the Neonate

A. EEG Discontinuity

B. Synchrony/Asynchrony

C. Delta Brush Patterns

D. Occipital Theta/Alpha Rhythms

E. Temporal Theta Rhythm

F. Delta Wave Patterns

V. Midline Theta/Alpha Activity

VI. Maturation of Noncerebral Physiologic Behaviors That Define State in the Preterm Infant

VII. Assessment of State Organization in the Full-Term Infant

VIII. Sleep Ontogenesis—State Maturation from Fetal Through Infancy Periods

IX. Ontogeny of Autonomic Behaviors During Sleep

A. Respiratory Patterns

B. Heart Rate and Heart Rate Variability

X. Brain Adaptation to Stress as Reflected in Sleep Reorganization

XI. Computer-Assisted Analyses of EEG Sleep Organization in Neonates and Infants

XII. Sleep Ontogenesis and Neural Plasticity

XIII. Summary

References

3 Maturation of Sleep Patterns During Infancy and Childhood

I. Introduction

II. Consolidation of Nocturnal Sleep

III. Sleep Onset and Sleep Duration

IV. Sleep State Organization

A. REM-NREM Sleep Distribution

B. REM-NREM Cycle

V. Factors Influencing Sleep Maturation

A. Medical Factors

B. Psychosocial Factors

C. Gender Differences in Sleep Maturation

VI. Maturation of Sleep and Cognitive Function in Children

VII. Summary and Conclusions

References

4 Maturation of Processes Regulating Sleep in Adolescents

I. Introduction

II. Circadian Timing System

A. Developmental Changes in Circadian Regulation

III. Sleep-Wake Homeostasis (Process S)

A. Developmental Changes in Process S and the Homeostatic Process

IV. A Model Relating These Processes to the Adolescent Sleep Delay

V. What About Young Adults?

VI. Implications

References

5 Characteristics of Arousal Mechanisms from Sleep in Infants and Children

I. Introduction

II. The Hierarchy of the Arousal Process

III. Definitions and Scoring Methodologies

IV. The Determination of Arousal Thresholds

V. Factors Influencing Arousability

A. Experimental Conditions

Type of Arousal Challenge

External Stimuli

Internal Arousal Stimulations

Time of Night

Sleep Stages

Frequency of Stimuli and Habituation

B. Infant and Children Characteristics

Age

Sleep Deprivation

Infection

C. Environmental Factors

Maternal Factors

Infant Sleep Conditions Body

Position During Sleep

Body and Room Temperature

Bedding Conditions

Nonnutritive and Nutritive Feedings

Pacifier Use

Breastfeeding

VI. Conclusion

References

6 Thermoregulation During Sleep in Infants: A Functional Interaction with Respiration

I. Introduction

II. Neonatal Thermoregulation

A. The Thermoregulatory System

The Central Controller

The Controlling System

The Thermoregulatory Effectors

Cutaneous Vasomotricity

Shivering Thermogenesis

Non-shivering Thermogenesis

The Sweating Response

Behavioral Thermoregulation

B. The Temperature That Is Actually Regulated

III. Sleep and Thermoregulation

A. Thermoregulatory Responses as a Function of Sleep Stage

B. Sleep and Thermoregulatory: A Functional Interaction

IV. Sleep, Thermoregulation, and Respiration

A. Experimental Evidence

B. Neural Sites

V. Summary

References

7 Behavioral Influences on Sleep in Children and Adolescents

I. Introduction

II. Infants, Toddlers, and School-Aged Children

A. Developmental Status

Cognitive, Motor, and Language Development

B. Family and Parental Factors

C. Emotional Factors

D. Health Status

E. Sleep Environment and Sleeping Arrangement

F. Sleep Practices

Sleep Schedules

Napping

III. Adolescence

A. Development

B Sleep Practices

Parental Involvement

Sleep Schedules

Napping

C. Sociocultural Influences

School Start Times

Extracurricular Activities, Leisure Activities, and Employment

D. Social and Emotional Factors

Stress

Mental Health

Substance Use

IV. Conclusion

References

8 Cultural Influences on Infant and Childhood Sleep Biology, and the Science That Studies It: Toward a More Inclusive Paradigm II

I. Introduction

II. Culture and Childhood Sleep

A. How Do Social Values and Cultural Goals Influence Infant Sleep Practices?

B. Is Moral Character a Function of the Sleep Environment?

C. Do Solitary? Or Social? Infant Sleeping Arrangements Produce Independent, Satisfied, (Moral) Children and Adults? Is This the Right Question?

D. Beliefs About the Consequences of Nontraditional Sleeping Arrangements: Science or Religion?

III. Conventional Western Understandings of “Healthy, Normal” Infant and Childhood Sleep: Where Did They Come From? Is One Form of Sleep as Good as Any Other?

A. The Traditional Sleep Research Paradigm Is Inadequate for the Diversity of Family Sleep Practices It Must and Should Accommodate

B. Examples of How Culturally Guided “Choices ” Concerning Sleeping Arrangements and Related Sleep Practices Matter Biologically to the Infant, and Change “Normative” Sleep Development

Infant Sleep Position and SIDS Susceptibility

Feeding Practices

Infant and Maternal Arousals, Temporal Correspondences, and Sleep Architecture Among Solitary and Bedsharing Mother-Baby Pairs

Culture (Vis à Vis Sleeping Arrangements) Regulates Infant Breathing?

Social Determinants of Total Infant Sleep Time and Average Bout Lengths

Thumbsucking and Transitional Objects

Does Solitary Infant Sleep and Rigid Parental Expectations Contribute to Infant-Parent Sleep Difficulties?

IV. Infant-Parent or Child Cosleeping: “The Political Third Rail?” Why So Controversial?

A. How Cultural/Scientific Bias Manifests Itself Against the Choice to “Cosleep”: A Social Critique

B. Cosleeping/Bedsharing in Western Societies: How Often? How Much of the Night? Who Really Knows?

C. Closet Cosleepers, Changing Demographics of Cosleeping Families and Dear Abby?

V. Conclusions/Recommendations/Afterthoughts–Getting Mothers and Infants Together for Nighttime Sleep and Breast-feeding: Still Crazy After All These Years

References

9 Pediatric Parasomnias

I. Introduction

II. Disorders of Arousal from NREM Sleep

A. Prevalence

B. Evaluation

Sleepwalking

Confusional Arousals

Sleep Terrors

C. Influencing Factors

D. Clinical Studies

E. Management

III. Parasomnias Usually Associated with REM Sleep

A. REM Sleep Behavior Disorder

Recurrent Isolated Sleep Paralysis

Sleep-Related Hallucinations

B. Nightmare Disorder

C. Associated Disorders

IV. Other Parasomnias

A. Enuresis

B. Sleep-Related Dissociative Disorders

C. Exploding Head Syndrome

D. Sleep-Related Eating Disorder

E. Associated Disorders

F. Catathrenia

Acknowledgment

References

10 Narcolepsy in Childhood

I. Introduction

II. Epidemiology

III. Pathophysiology

A. Initial Studies in Animals

B. Genetic Predisposition

C. Hypocretin Deficiency

D. The Association Between Childhood Narcolepsy and Obesity

E. Symptomatic Narcolepsy

IV. Clinical Features

A. Preschool-Age Children

B. School-Age Children

V. Diagnosis

A. Nocturnal Polysomnogram

B. Multiple Sleep Latency Test

C. Maintenance of Wakefulness Test

D. CSF Hypocretin Analysis

VI. Management

A. Sleepiness

B. Cataplexy

C. General Measures

D. Immunotherapy

VII. Conclusions

References

11 Sleep in Children with Neurologic Disease

I. Introduction

II. Sleep in Children with Pervasive Developmental Disorders

III. Sleep in Other Forms of Mental Retardation

A. Down Syndrome

B. Rett Syndrome

C. Fragile X Syndrome

D. Angelman Syndrome

E. Prader-Willi Syndrome

F. Smith-Magenis Syndrome

IV. Nocturnal Frontal Lobe Epilepsy and Abnormal Motor Behaviors of Epileptic Origin: Differentiation from Parasomnias

A. Nocturnal Frontal Lobe Epilepsy

B. Nocturnal Motor Behaviors in Children

C. Diagnostic Differentiation Between NFLE and Arousal Disorders: Theoretical Implications

V. Achondroplasia

VI. Neuromuscular Diseases

VII. Cerebral Palsy

VIII. Headaches

IX. Use of Melatonin in Children with Neurologic Disorders

A. Neurologic Syndromes and Mental Retardation

B. Blindness

References

12 Sleep and Psychiatric Disorders in Children: A Complex Reciprocal Relationship

I. Introduction

II. Sleep and Anxiety Disorders

III. Sleep and Depression

IV. Sleep and ADHD

V. Sleep and Developmental Disorders

VI. Case Discussion

A. Case 1

B. Case 2

VII. Summary and Conclusions

References

13 Restless Legs Syndrome and Periodic Limb Movements in Sleep in Children

I. Introduction

II. Epidemiology of Adult and Childhood RLS

III. Essential Clinical Features of Adult RLS

IV. Nonessential Features of Adult Restless Legs Syndrome

A. Periodic Limb Movements in Sleep

V. Essential Clinical Criteria for Childhood RLS

VI. Pathophysiology

A. Iron

B. Dopamine

C. Other Less Well-Explored Hypotheses

VII. Relationship of Childhood RLS to Growing Pains

VIII. Relationship of Childhood RLS to ADHD

IX. Treatment Options

A. Dopaminergic Drugs

B. Opioids

C. Gabapentin

D. Benzodiazepines

E. Iron Therapy

X. Treatment of Restless Legs and Periodic Limb Movements of Sleep in Children

References

14 Gastroesophageal Reflux During Sleep

I. Sleep, Gastroesophageal Function and Dysfunction

A. Sleep, Circadian Rhythms, and Gastroesophageal Function

A. Sleep Disturbance

B. Respiratory Findings

References

15 Assessing Neurobehavioral Outcomes in Childhood Sleep-Disordered Breathing: A Primer for Nonneuropsychologists

I. Introduction

II. Psychometric Terms

A. The “Reliable and Valid” Instrument

Reliability

Validity

B. Scores and Norms

III. Psychometric Issues in Child Assessment

IV. The State of the Field Circa 2006

V. Concluding Comments

Acknowledgment

References

16 Structural and Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging as a Research Tool in Pediatric Sleep Research

I. Introduction

II. Structural Imaging

A. Upper Airway Morphology

B.Brain Morphology

Routine MRI

Diffusion Tensor Imaging

Magnetization Transfer Imaging

Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

III. Functional Imaging

A. Bold fMRI

B. Spin Label Procedures

C. DTI Functional Imaging

IV. Analytic Procedures

Structural MRI

Voxel-Based Analysis

Spatial Normalization and Segmentation

Smoothing

Statistical Analyses and Display

Defined Areas of Analysis: Volume of Interest

Morphometry

B. Functional MRI

Cluster Analysis

VOI Analysis

V. Physiological Data Acquisition

VI. Movement Control

VII. Imaging Resources and Shared Access

VIII. Summary

Acknowledgment

References

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