Chapter 1. Earth and Its Atmosphere
- The Atmosphere and the Scientific Method
- Overview of Earth’s Atmosphere
- The Early Atmosphere
- Composition of Today’s Atmosphere
- Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere
- A Brief Look at Air Pressure and Air Density
- Layers of the Atmosphere
- The Ionosphere
- Weather and Climate
- Meteorology—A Brief History
- A Satellite’s View of the Weather
- Weather and Climate in Our Lives
- Summary
- Key Terms
- Questions for Review
- Questions for Thought
- Problems and Exercises
Chapter 2. Energy: Warming Earth and the Atmosphere
- Energy, Temperature, and Heat
- Temperature Scales
- Specific Heat
- Latent Heat—The Hidden Warmth
- Heat Transfer in the Atmosphere
- Conduction
- Convection
- Radiant Energy
- Radiation and Temperature
- Radiation of the Sun and Earth
- Radiation—Absorption, Emission, and Equilibrium
- Selective Absorbers and the Atmospheric Greenhouse Effect
- Enhancement of the Greenhouse Effect
- Warming the Air from Below
- Shortwave Radiation Streaming from the Sun
- Earth’s Annual Energy Balance
- Solar Particles, the Aurora, and Space Weather
- Solar Storms and Space Weather
- Summary
- Key Terms
- Questions for Review
- Questions for Thought
- Problems and Exercises
Chapter 3. Seasonal and Daily Temperatures
- Why Earth Has Seasons
- Seasons in the Northern Hemisphere
- Seasons in the Southern Hemisphere
- Local Seasonal Variations
- Daily Warming and Cooling Air Near the Surface
- Daytime Warming
- Extreme High Temperatures
- Nighttime Cooling
- Record Low Temperatures
- Daily Temperature Variations
- Applications of Air Temperature Data
- Air Temperature and Human Comfort
- Measuring Air Temperature
- Summary
- Key Terms
- Questions for Review
- Questions for Thought
- Problems and Exercises
Chapter 4. Atmospheric Humidity
- Circulation of Water in the Atmosphere
- The Many Phases of Water
- Evaporation, Condensation, and Saturation
- Humidity
- Absolute Humidity
- Specific Humidity and Mixing Ratio
- Vapor Pressure
- Relative Humidity
- Relative Humidity and Dew Point
- Comparing Humidities
- Relative Humidity in the Home
- Relative Humidity and Human Discomfort
- Measuring Humidity
- Summary
- Key Terms
- Questions for Review
- Questions for Thought
- Problems and Exercises
Chapter 5. Condensation: Dew, Fog, and Clouds
- The Formation of Dew and Frost
- Condensation Nuclei
- Haze
- Fog
- Radiation Fog
- Advection Fog
- Upslope Fog
- Evaporation (Mixing) Fog
- Foggy Weather
- Clouds
- Classification of Clouds
- Cloud Identification
- Some Unusual Clouds
- Cloud Observations
- Satellite Observations
- Summary
- Key Terms
- Questions for Review
- Questions for Thought
- Problems and Exercises
Chapter 6. Stability and Cloud Development
- Atmospheric Stability
- Determining Stability
- A Stable Atmosphere
- An Unstable Atmosphere
- A Conditionally Unstable Atmosphere
- Causes of Instability
- Cloud Development
- Convection and Clouds
- Topography and Clouds
- Clouds That Form Downwind of Mountains
- Changing Cloud Forms
- Summary
- Key Terms
- Questions for Review
- Questions for Thought
- Problems and Exercises
Chapter 7. Precipitation
- Precipitation Processes
- How Do Cloud Droplets Grow Larger?
- Collision and Coalescence Process
- Ice-Crystal (Bergeron) Process
- Cloud Seeding and Precipitation
- Precipitation in Clouds
- Precipitation Types
- Rain
- Snow
- Sleet and Freezing Rain
- Snow Grains and Snow Pellets
- Hail
- Measuring Precipitation
- Instruments
- Doppler Radar and Precipitation
- Measuring Precipitation from Space
- Summary
- Key Terms
- Questions for Review
- Questions for Thought
- Problems and Exercises
Chapter 8. Air Pressure and Winds
- Atmospheric Pressure
- Horizontal Pressure Variations—A Tale of Two Cities
- Daily Pressure Variations
- Pressure Measurements
- Pressure Readings
- Surface and Upper-Level Charts
- Newton’s Laws of Motion
- Forces That Influence the Winds
- Pressure Gradient Force
- Coriolis Force
- Straight-Line Flow Aloft—Geostrophic Winds
- Curved Winds Around Lows and Highs Aloft—Gradient Winds
- Winds on Upper-Level Charts
- Surface Winds
- Winds and Vertical Air Motions
- Summary
- Key Terms
- Questions for Review
- Questions for Thought
- Problems and Exercises
Chapter 9. Wind: Small-Scale and Local Systems
- Scales of Motion
- Small-Scale Winds Interacting with the Environment
- Friction and Turbulence in the Boundary Layer
- Eddies—Big and Small
- The Strong Force of the Wind
- Wind and Soil
- Wind and Snow
- Wind and Vegetation
- Wind and Water
- Local Wind Systems
- Thermal Circulations
- Sea and Land Breezes
- Mountain and Valley Breezes
- Katabatic Winds
- Chinook (Foehn) Winds
- Santa Ana Winds
- Desert Winds
- Seasonally Changing Winds—The Monsoon
- Determining Wind Direction and Speed
- The Influence of Prevailing Winds
- Wind Measurements
- Summary
- Key Terms
- Questions for Review
- Questions for Thought
- Problems and Exercises
Chapter 10. Wind: Global Systems
- General Circulation of the Atmosphere
- Single-Cell Model
- Three-Cell Model
- Average Surface Winds and Pressure: The Real World
- The General Circulation and Precipitation Patterns
- Average Wind Flow and Pressure Patterns Aloft
- Jet Streams
- The Formation of Jet Streams
- Other Jet Streams
- Atmosphere-Ocean Interactions
- Global Wind Patterns and Surface Ocean Currents
- Upwelling
- El Niño, La Niña, and the Southern Oscillation
- Pacific Decadal Oscillation
- North Atlantic Oscillation and Arctic Oscillation
- Summary
- Key Terms
- Questions for Review
- Questions for Thought
- Problems and Exercises
Chapter 11. Air Masses and Fronts
- Air Masses
- Source Regions
- Classification
- Air Masses of North America
- Fronts
- Stationary Fronts
- Cold Fronts
- Warm Fronts
- Drylines
- Occluded Fronts
- Upper-Air Fronts
- Summary
- Key Terms
- Questions for Review
- Questions for Thought
- Problems and Exercises
Chapter 12. Middle-Latitude Cyclones
- Polar Front Theory
- Where Do Mid-Latitude Cyclones Tend to Form?
- Vertical Structure of Deep Dynamic Lows
- The Roles of Converging and Diverging Air
- Upper-Level Waves and Mid-Latitude Cyclones
- The Necessary Ingredients for a Developing Mid-Latitude Cyclone
- Upper-Air Support
- The Role of the Jet Stream
- Conveyor Belt Model of Mid-Latitude Cyclones
- A Developing Mid-Latitude Cyclone—The March Storm of 1993
- Vorticity, Divergence, and Developing Mid-Latitude Cyclones
- Vorticity on a Spinning Planet
- Vorticity Advection and Shortwaves
- Putting It All Together—A Monstrous Snowstorm
- Polar Lows
- Summary
- Key Terms
- Questions for Review
- Questions for Thought
- Problems and Exercises
Chapter 13. Weather Forecasting
- Weather Observations
- Surface and Upper-Air Data
- Satellite Products
- Doppler Radar
- Acquisition of Weather Information
- Weather Forecasting Tools
- Forecast Production
- Time Range of Forecasts
- Forecasting Techniques
- The Computer and Weather Forecasting: Numerical Weather Prediction
- Why Forecasts Go Awry and Steps to Improve Them
- Accuracy and Skill in Forecasting
- Predicting the Weather from Local Signs
- Weather Forecasting Using Surface Charts
- Determining the Movement of Weather Systems
- A Forecast for Six Cities
- A Meteorologist Makes a Prediction
- Help from the 500-mb Chart
- The Models Provide Assistance
- A Valid Forecast
- Satellite and Upper-Air Assistance
- A Day of Rain and Wind
- Summary
- Key Terms
- Questions for Review
- Questions for Thought
- Problems and Exercises
Chapter 14. Thunderstorms
- Thunderstorm Types
- Ordinary Cell Thunderstorms
- Multicell Thunderstorms
- Supercell Thunderstorms
- Thunderstorms and the Dryline
- Thunderstorms and Flooding
- Distribution of Thunderstorms
- Lightning and Thunder
- How Far Away Is the Lightning?—Start Counting
- Electrification of Clouds
- The Lightning Stroke
- Lightning Detection and Suppression
- Summary
- Key Terms
- Questions for Review
- Questions for Thought
- Problems and Exercises
Chapter 15. Tornadoes
- Tornadoes: A Few Facts
- Tornado Life Cycle
- Tornado Occurrence and Distribution
- Tornado Winds
- Tornado Outbreaks
- Tornado Formation
- Supercell Tornadoes
- Nonsupercell Tornadoes
- Waterspouts
- Observing Tornadoes and Severe Weather
- Storm Chasing and Field Research
- Summary
- Key Terms
- Questions for Review
- Questions for Thought
- Problems and Exercises
Chapter 16. Hurricanes
- Tropical Weather
- Anatomy of a Hurricane
- Hurricane Formation and Dissipation
- The Right Environment
- The Developing Storm
- The Storm Dies Out
- Hurricane Stages of Development
- Investigating the Storm
- Hurricane Movement
- Naming Hurricanes and Tropical Storms
- Devastating Winds, the Storm Surge, and Flooding
- Classifying Hurricane Strength
- Hurricane Spawned Tornadoes
- Hurricane Fatalities
- Some Notable Hurricanes
- Galveston, 1900
- New England, 1938
- Camille, 1969
- Hugo, 1989
- Andrew, 1992
- Ivan, 2004
- Katrina and Rita, 2005
- Sandy