Optical Fiber Telecommunications Components and Subsystems 6th Edition by Ivan Kaminow, Tingye Li, Alan Willner 0123969581 9780123969583

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ISBN 10: 0123969581

ISBN 13: 9780123969583

Author: Ivan Kaminow, Tingye Li and Alan E . Willner

 

Optical Fiber Telecommunications VI (A&B) is the sixth in a series that has chronicled the progress in the R&D of lightwave communications since the early 1970s. Written by active authorities from academia and industry, this edition brings a fresh look to many essential topics, including devices, subsystems, systems and networks. A central theme is the enabling of high-bandwidth communications in a cost-effective manner for the development of customer applications. These volumes are an ideal reference for R&D engineers and managers, optical systems implementers, university researchers and students, network operators, and investors.

Volume A is devoted to components and subsystems, including photonic integrated circuits, multicore and few-mode fibers, photonic crystals, silicon photonics, signal processing, and optical interconnections.

Optical Fiber Telecommunications Components and Subsystems 6th Table of contents:

1 Advances in Fiber Distributed‑Feedback Lasers

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Fiber DFB Lasers

1.2.1 Introduction

1.2.2 Fiber π-phase-shifted DFB lasers

1.2.2.1 Grating writing techniques

1.2.2.2 Novel fiber DFB cavity designs

1.2.2.2.1 Step-apodized, asymmetric π-phase-shifted designs

1.2.2.3 Inverse-engineered designs with ultimate efficiency

1.2.3 Optical performance of fiber DFB lasers

1.2.3.1 Output power/polarization

1.2.3.2 Wavelength coverage

1.2.3.3 Linewidth and RIN performance

1.2.3.4 Phase/frequency noise performance

1.2.3.5 Tunability

1.2.3.6 Power scaling—master-oscillator power amplifiers (MOPAs)

1.2.4 Multi-wavelength fiber DFB lasers and fiber DFB laser arrays

1.2.5 Optical transmission system experiments

1.2.6 Fiber DFB laser in non-telecom applications

1.3 Summary and concluding remarks—outlook

References

2 Semiconductor Photonic Integrated Circuit Transmitters and Receivers

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Technology

2.2.1 Group III–V PICs

2.2.2 Group IV PICs

2.2.3 Hybrid integration of Groups III–V and IV

2.2.4 Comparison of PIC technologies

2.3 Devices based on on-off keying (OOK)

2.3.1 Group III–V PICs for OOK transmission

2.3.1.1 Group III–V single-channel PICs for OOK transmission

2.3.1.2 Group III–V multichannel PICs for OOK transmission

2.3.2 Group IV PICs for OOK transmission

2.3.2.1 Group IV single-channel PICs for OOK transmission

2.3.2.2 Group IV multi-channel PICs for OOK transmission

2.3.2.3 Space-division multiplexed devices

2.4 PICs based on advanced modulation formats

2.4.1 Introduction

2.4.1.1 Overview

2.4.1.2 Devices and performance of advanced modulation formats

2.4.2 Group III–V PICs for advanced modulation format transmission

2.4.2.1 III–V single-channel PICs for advanced modulation format transmission

2.4.2.2 III–V multi-channel PICs for advanced modulation format transmission

2.4.3 Group IV PICs for advanced modulation format transmission

2.4.3.1 Group IV single-channel PICs for advanced modulation format transmission

2.4.4 Space-division multiplexing PICs

2.5 Future trends

Acknowledgements

References

3 Advances in Photodetectors and Optical Receivers

3.1 Introduction

3.2 High-speed waveguide photodiodes

3.2.1 Side-illuminated and evanescently-coupled waveguide photodiodes

3.2.2 Distributed and traveling-wave photodetectors

3.3 High-power photodiodes

3.3.1 Normal-incidence uni-traveling-carrier photodiodes

3.3.2 High-power WG photodiodes

3.3.3 High-linearity photodiodes

3.3.4 High-power balanced detectors

3.3.5 Photodetector arrays

3.4 Long-wavelength photodiodes on silicon

3.4.1 High-speed Ge photodiodes

3.4.2 Heterogeneously integrated III–V photodiodes on Si

3.5 APDs

3.5.1 SACM APDs

3.5.2 Low-noise APDs

3.5.3 Single photon APDs

3.6 Conclusion

References

4 Fundamentals of Photonic Crystals for Telecom Applications—Photonic Crystal Lasers

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Ultimate Nanolasers

4.2.1 Toward realizing ultimate nanolasers

4.2.2 Quantum anti-zeno effect in a nanocavity and quantum dot system

4.3 Broad-Area Coherent Lasers

4.3.1 Broad-area coherent operation

4.3.2 Beam pattern control by designing lattice points

4.3.3 Extension to the blue-violet region

4.3.4 Realization of beam steering functionality

4.4 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

5 High-Speed Polymer Optical Modulators

5.1 Introduction

5.1.1 The advantages of EO polymer

5.1.2 Requirements for commercial applications

5.2 Material design

5.2.1 Design and development of EO polymer

5.2.1.1 Electron donor

5.2.1.2 Bridge

5.2.1.3 Electron acceptor

5.2.1.4 Peripheral secondary groups

5.2.2 Current status of commercial technologies

5.3 EO Material characterization

5.3.1 Characterization methods for electro-optical polymer material

5.3.1.1 Properties

5.4 Fundamental EO Performance Characterization

5.4.1 Electrical properties

5.4.1.1 Conductivity

5.4.2 Optical properties

5.4.2.1 Refractive index

5.4.2.2 Optical loss

5.4.3 Electro-optical properties

5.4.3.1 Poling and EO coefficient r33

5.4.4 Measurement results from prototype materials

5.5 Device Design

5.5.1 Zero chirp single-ended EO modulators

5.5.1.1 Optical waveguide

5.5.1.2 RF electrodes

5.5.1.3 Bias circuits

5.6 Wafer Fabrication

5.6.1 EO polymer processing fundamentals

5.6.1.1 Substrate cleaning

5.6.1.2 Metal sputtering

5.6.1.3 Spincoating

5.6.2 Waveguide fabrication

5.6.3 Poling

5.6.3.1 Process requirements and background

5.6.3.2 R33 vs. optical loss

5.6.4 Side mode blocking structure

5.6.4.1 Process requirements and background

5.6.4.2 Fabrication

5.6.5 RF electrode fabrication

5.6.6 Velocity match

5.6.6.1 Process requirements and background

5.6.6.2 Processing

5.6.7 Dicing

5.6.7.1 Process requirements and background

5.6.7.2 Facet coverslip attach

5.6.7.3 Dicing

5.7 Conclusion

References

6 Nanophotonics for Low-Power Switches

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Existing and Emerging Materials

6.3 Switches

6.3.1 Electronically controlled switches

6.3.1.1 Basic operation and power dissipation issues

6.3.1.2 Figures of merit for nanophotonics switches

6.3.2 Some examples of electronically controlled switches

6.3.2.1 Electrooptic polymers (EOPs) on a silicon platform

6.3.2.2 Hybrid plasmonics

6.3.2.3 Modeling of a metamaterial-type nanoswitch

6.3.2.4 Modeling of nanoswitches based on optical-near-field-coupled metal nanoparticles

6.3.2.5 Silicon electrooptic switches

6.3.2.6 Slow-wave switches

6.3.3 All-optical switches

6.3.3.1 All-optical switches based on waveguides and optical nonlinearities

6.4 Summary and Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

7 Fibers for Short-Distance Applications

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Theory of Light Propagation in Multimode Fibers

7.3 Characterization of MM Fiber and Sources for High Data Rate Applications

7.3.1 Bandwidth

7.3.2 Fiber characterization: HRDMD

7.3.3 Source characterization (encircled flux)

7.3.4 EMBc metric

7.4 System Models and Measurements for 1 Gb and 10 Gb Ethernet

7.5 Bend-Insensitive MM Fiber

7.6 Current and Future Directions for Optical Fibers for Short-Reach Applications

7.6.1 Consumer applications and very short-distance networks

7.6.2 Multimode fibers for high-performance computing (HPC)

7.6.3 Multicore fiber for optical interconnect

Appendix A

References

8 Few-Mode Fiber Technology for Spatial Multiplexing

8.1 Motivation

8.1.1 Background

8.1.2 Modern few-mode fiber design objectives

8.2 Modal Structure of Fiber Designs

8.2.1 Linearly polarized modes

8.2.2 Distributed mode coupling

8.2.3 Differential group delay (DGD)

8.2.4 Accumulation of DGD with propagation distance

8.2.5 Non step-index fibers

8.2.6 Few-mode fiber requirements revisited

8.2.7 Impact of discrete mode coupling

8.2.8 How many modes can a FMF support?

8.3 Fiber Designs Optimized for Few-Mode Transmission

8.3.1 Early dual-mode optical fiber design

8.3.2 Step-index style FMF for SDM

8.3.3 Variations on step-index fiber designs

8.3.4 Two-mode GRIN FMF for SDM

8.3.5 GRIN two-mode fiber example 1

8.3.6 GRIN two-mode fiber example 2

8.3.7 Extension to higher number of modes

8.3.8 How many modes can a FMF support? (Revisited)

8.3.9 Supermode fiber concept

8.4 Measurement of Few-Mode Fiber

8.4.1 Differential group delay (DGD)

8.4.2 Time of flight (impulse response) measurements

8.4.3 Spatially integrated interferometric measurements

8.4.4 Spatially resolved interferometric measurements (S2)

8.4.5 Differential mode attenuation (DMA)

8.4.6 Mode coupling

8.5 Future perspective

Acknowledgments

References

9 Multi-Core Optical Fibers

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Inter-Core Crosstalk

9.2.1 Coupled-mode equation with perturbed propagation constants and inter-core crosstalk in multi-c

9.2.2 Redefinition of mode coupling coefficient

9.2.3 General expression of the power coupling coefficient under random perturbations

9.2.4 Effects of bend and twist

9.2.5 Effects of the random structural fluctuations

9.2.6 Average crosstalk under gradual and random fiber rotation

9.2.7 Statistical distribution of the crosstalk

9.2.8 Crosstalk suppression

9.2.8.1 Suppression of the mode coupling coefficient

9.2.8.2 Suppression of the phase matching

9.2.8.2.1 Utilization of the propagation constant mismatch

9.2.8.2.2 Utilization of the bend-induced perturbation

9.2.8.2.3 Utilization of the longitudinal structural fluctuation

9.2.8.2.4 Utilization of the power spectrum sampling induced by short- and constant-period spin

9.2.9 Target level of crosstalk suppression

9.3 Cutoff Wavelength Variation Due to Effects of Surrounding Cores

9.4 Efficient Utilization of Fiber Cross-Sectional Area

9.4.1 Outer cladding thickness and excess loss in outer cores

9.4.2 Cladding diameter and mechanical reliability

9.4.3 Core arrangement

9.5 Conclusion

References

10 Plastic Optical Fibers and Gb/s Data Links

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Structure and Fabrication of Plastic Optical Fiber

10.2.1 Step index plastic optical fiber

10.2.2 Graded index plastic optical fiber

10.3 Attenuation of Plastic Optical Fiber

10.3.1 Absorption loss

10.3.2 Scattering loss

10.3.3 Low loss plastic optical fiber

10.4 Bandwidth of Plastic Optical Fiber

10.4.1 Intermodal dispersion

10.4.2 Intramodal dispersion

10.4.3 High bandwidth plastic optical fiber

10.5 Application and Future Prospect of Plastic Optical Fiber

10.5.1 Step index large-core plastic optical fiber

10.5.2 Graded index plastic optical fiber

References

11 Integrated and Hybrid Photonics for High-Performance Interconnects

11.1 Introduction

11.1.1 Short-reach optical interconnects

11.1.1.1 Rack-to-rack (1–10 m)

11.1.1.2 Card-to-card (0.1 m–1 m)

11.1.1.3 Chip-to-chip (<0.1 m)

11.1.2 Bandwidth, connectivity, and latency

11.1.3 Energy and power

11.1.4 Cost and integration

11.1.4.1 Optoelectronic integration

11.1.4.2 Electronic-Optoelectronic integration

11.1.4.3 Optoelectronic to optical connections

11.1.4.4 Assembly

11.2 Components

11.2.1 Waveguides

11.2.2 Multimode components

11.2.2.1 Waveguide crossings

11.2.2.2 Waveguide bends

11.2.2.3 Power splitters/combiners

11.2.3 Single-mode components

11.2.3.1 Total internal reflection micro-mirrors

11.2.3.2 Waveguide micro-bends

11.2.3.3 Splitters and combiners

11.2.3.4 Compact waveguide crossings

11.3 Architectures

11.3.1 Point-to-point on-board optical links

11.3.1.1 Electronic-photonic interface

11.3.1.2 Chip-to-waveguide coupling

11.3.1.3 Optical plug-n-play

11.3.2 Shuffle networks

11.3.2.1 Edge-board coupled optical backplane

11.3.2.2 Mid-board coupled optical backplane

11.3.3 Optical buses

11.3.3.1 Free-space optical buses

11.3.3.2 Metallic hollow waveguide bus

11.3.3.3 Polymeric optical bus

11.3.4 Optical switch architectures

11.3.4.1 Crosspoint switch elements

11.3.4.2 High-radix switches

11.3.4.3 Multi-stage switches

11.3.4.4 Wavelength selective switching

11.4 Outlook

References

12 CMOS Photonics for High Performance Interconnects

12.1 On-Chip Interconnects and Power—A System Architect’s View

12.1.1 The evolution of microprocessor architecture

12.1.2 Future scaling of electrical core-to-memory links

12.1.2.1 Channel bandwidth

12.1.2.2 Channel density

12.1.2.3 Energy efficiency

12.1.3 On-chip electrical interconnects

12.2 Photonic Network Architecture

12.2.1 Optical link design and components development

12.2.2 Wavelength division multiplexing

12.2.2.1 Provisionable optical bandwidth

12.2.2.2 First-order filter realizations

12.2.2.3 Higher-order filter realizations

12.2.3 Channel locking and thermal stabilization

12.2.4 Modulators

12.2.5 Detectors

12.2.6 On-chip electrical link energy

12.2.7 Link integration considerations

12.2.7.1 Single channel link trade-offs

12.2.7.2 Full WDM link evaluation

12.2.8 Optical loss budget

12.2.9 Optical power supply

12.3 Future Core-to-DRAM Photonic Networks

12.3.1 Memory module architecture

12.3.2 Wavelength-routed architecture

12.3.3 Survey of current and future architecture work

12.3.3.1 Existing state of the art

References

13 Hybrid Silicon Lasers

13.1 Introduction to hybrid silicon lasers

13.2 Design of Hybrid Silicon Lasers

13.2.1 Hybrid modes

13.2.2 Current confinement and flow

13.2.3 Hybrid laser tapers

13.2.4 Other important concepts

13.3 Wafer Bonding Techniques and Fabrication

13.3.1 Direct wafer bonding

13.3.2 Adhesive bonding

13.3.3 Fabrication

13.4 Experimental Results

13.4.1 Fabry-Perot lasers

13.4.2 Ring lasers

13.4.3 DBR lasers

13.4.4 DFB lasers

13.4.5 Microring and microdisk lasers

13.5 Reliability

13.6 Specialized Hybrid Lasers and System Demonstrations

13.7 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

14 VCSEL-Based Data Links

14.1 Introduction

14.2 850 nm VCSELs

14.2.1 Basics of VCSEL operation

14.2.2 VCSEL detailed design

14.2.3 14 Gb/s reliability

14.2.4 28 Gb/s VCSEL design

14.2.5 28 G VCSEL reliability

14.3 Long wavelength VCSELs (1.3–1.6 µM)

14.3.1 Transceivers with 1.3 μm VCSELs

14.3.2 1550 nm Long-wavelength VCSELs

14.3.3 Distributed Bragg reflector lasers

14.4 Data rates >28 Gb/s

14.4.1 Eletrooptical modulation

14.4.1.1 Active region

14.4.2 Optical injection locking

14.4.3 Advanced modulation with VCSELs

14.4.3.1 M-ary pulse amplitude modulation

14.4.3.2 Quadrature amplitude modulation

14.4.3.3 Discrete multitone modulation

14.4.3.4 Carrierless amplitude phase modulation

14.5 Optical interconnect technology

14.6 Comparison of VCSELs and silicon photonics

14.7 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

15 Implementation Aspects of Coherent Transmit and Receive Functions in Application-Specific Integra

15.1 Introduction

15.2 ASIC design options and limitations

15.3 High-speed data converters

15.3.1 ADC architectures

15.4 Implementation of signal processing algorithms at high speed

15.4.1 Quadrature imbalance compensation

15.4.2 Chromatic dispersion compensation

15.4.3 Polarization tracking

15.5 Soft-FEC implementation at data rates of 100 G or higher

15.5.1 Soft-decision decoding in optical communications

15.5.2 Low-Density Parity-Check (LDPC) codes

15.5.3 Decoding of LDPC codes

15.5.4 Quasi-cyclic LDPC codes

15.5.5 Efficient encoding of quasi-cyclic LDPC codes

15.6 Performance evaluation of different coding concepts

15.7 Conclusion

References

16 All-Optical Regeneration of Phase Encoded Signals

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Approaches to Regeneration of Phase Encoded Signals

16.2.1 Indirect PSK regeneration

16.2.1.1 Nonlinear loop mirror

16.2.1.2 Four-wave mixing-based limiting

16.2.1.3 Optical injection locking

16.2.1.4 Saturable absorption

16.2.2 Direct phase regeneration

16.2.2.1 Format conversion-based regeneration

16.2.2.2 Phase sensitive amplification

16.3 PSA-Based Phase Regeneration

16.3.1 Binary phase quantization theory

16.3.1.1 Interferometric PSA

16.3.1.2 Non-interferometric PSA

16.3.1.3 Comparison of interferometric and non-interferometric PSAs

16.3.2 Saturation of PSAs for amplitude noise suppression

16.3.2.1 Experimental observation of saturation in degenerate PS-FOPA

16.4 Black-Box PSA-Based BPSK Regeneration

16.4.1 Phase locking of pumps and signal

16.4.2 Noise suppression capability of the black-box regenerator

16.4.3 Field results with DWDM network-generated noise

16.4.4 Analog error correction in PSA regenerators

16.5 MPSK Phase Regeneration

16.5.1 PSA-based multilevel phase regeneration

16.5.1.1 Multilevel phase quantization concept

16.5.1.2 Multilevel phase quantizer implementation

16.5.1.3 Inline PSA QPSK regenerator

16.5.2 Other approaches to QPSK regeneration

16.5.2.1 Interferometric (parallel PSA) QPSK regenerator

16.5.2.2 Interferometric format conversion-based QPSK regeneration

16.5.3 Flexible MPSK quantization

16.6 Choice of nonlinear materials and designs for all-optical signal processing

16.6.1 Third-order nonlinearity systems

16.6.2 Quadratic nonlinearity systems

16.6.3 Semiconductor optical amplifiers

16.7 Future Trends and Research Directions

16.7.1 Multiwavelength regeneration

16.7.2 Regeneration of other advanced modulation formats

16.8 Conclusions

References

17 Ultra-High-Speed Optical Time Division Multiplexing

17.1 Background

17.1.1 Ultra-fast nonlinear switching elements and materials

17.2 The Basic OTDM System and Its Constituent Parts

17.2.1 Essential functionalities for point-to-point

17.2.1.1 Pulse sources and pulse compression

17.2.1.2 Demultiplexing: single channel

17.2.1.3 Clock recovery

17.2.1.3.1 SOA-based clock recovery at 640 Gbit/s (first ever)

17.2.1.3.2 PPLN-based 640 Gbit/s clock recovery

17.2.1.4 Compatibility with multi-level modulation formats

17.2.2 Advanced network functionalities

17.2.2.1 Channel identification and simultaneous synchronization

17.2.2.2 Add/drop multiplexing

17.2.2.3 Synchronization of 10 Gbit/s Ethernet packets and OTDM

17.2.3 Impairment-tolerant switches

17.2.3.1 Flat-top pulses for timing jitter tolerant demultiplexing

17.2.3.2 Polarization-independent switching

17.2.4 Processing of all bits in one device—conversion-type functionalities

17.2.4.1 Serial-to-parallel conversion

17.2.4.2 Wavelength conversion

17.2.4.3 Regeneration

17.2.4.4 Packet switching at 640 Gbit/s

17.2.5 Transmission

17.2.5.1 Dispersion tolerance

17.2.5.2 640 Gbaud transmission experiments

17.2.5.3 Tbaud transmission and dispersion compensation by spatial light modulation

17.2.5.4 640 Gbaud field trial with RZ-NRZ conversion for improved transmission performance

17.3 Silicon Photonics and Ultra-Fast Optical Signal Processing

17.3.1 Silicon photonics for ultra-fast optical signal processing

17.3.2 Demonstrations of silicon-based optical signal processing of OTDM signals

17.3.2.1 1.28 Tbit/s demultiplexing and optical sampling of OOK and DPSK data signals

17.3.2.2 640 Gbit/s wavelength conversion

17.3.2.3 640 Gbit/s serial-to-parallel conversion

17.4 Energy Perspectives and Potential Applications

17.5 Summary

References

18 Technology and Applications of Liquid Crystal on Silicon (LCoS) in Telecommunications

18.1 Introduction

18.2 ROADMs and Reconfigurable Optical Networks

18.3 Background and Technology of LCoS

18.3.1 Untwisted nematic liquid crystal cells (Fréedericksz cells)

18.3.2 Cell construction

18.3.3 Driving a cell

18.3.4 Spatial light modulators

18.3.5 Holographic Fourier processing

18.3.6 Holographic beam steering

18.3.7 Comparison with other switching technologies

18.3.7.1 MEMS optical switching

18.3.7.2 Binary liquid crystal switching

18.4 LCoS-based Wavelength-Selective Switching

18.4.1 Switching between ports

18.4.2 Optical power control

18.4.3 Spectral resolution

18.4.4 Polarization-independent operation

18.4.5 Port isolation and extinction

18.4.6 Phase response

18.4.7 Switching time

18.4.8 Device specification calibration and characterization

18.5 Future Networks

18.5.1 Overcoming capacity constraints

18.5.2 Beyond the ITU grid

18.5.3 Elastic networks

18.5.4 Colorless, directionless, contentionless ROADMs

18.6 Emerging Applications of LCoS

18.6.1 Fourier domain pulse shaping and generation

18.6.2 Microwave signal processing

18.6.3 Phase-sensitive amplification

18.6.4 Programmable interferometer

18.6.5 Advanced SLMs

18.6.6 Modal switching

18.6.7 Tunable lasers

18.6.8 Programmable high resolution

18.6.9 Other applications

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Ivan Kaminow,Tingye Li,Alan Willner,Telecommunications