Physics for Diagnostic Radiology 3rd Edition by Philip Palin Dendy, Brian Heaton ISBN 1420083155 9781420083156

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ISBN 10: 1420083155 

ISBN 13: 9781420083156

Author: Philip Palin Dendy, Brian Heaton

Table of contents: 

1 Fundamentals of Radiation Physics and Radioactivity
1.1 Structure of the Atom
1.2 Nuclear Stability and Instability
1.3 Radioactive Concentration and Specific Activity
1.3.1 Radioactive Concentration
1.3.2 Specific Activity
1.4 Radioactive Decay Processes
1.4.1 β-Decay
1.4.2 β+Decay
1.4.3 α Decay
1.5 Exponential Decay
1.6 Half-Life
1.7 Secular and Transient Equilibrium
1.8 Biological and Effective Half-Life
1.9 Gamma Radiation
1.10 X-rays and Gamma Rays as Forms of Electromagnetic Radiation
1.11 Quantum Properties of Radiation
1.12 Inverse Square Law
1.13 Interaction of Radiation with Matter
1.14 Linear Energy Transfer
1.15 Energy Changes in Radiological Physics
1.16 Conclusion
Further Reading
Exercises
2 Production of X-Rays
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The X-ray Spectrum
2.2.1 The Continuous Spectrum
2.2.2 The Low and High Energy Cut-Off
2.2.3 Shape of the Continuous Spectrum
2.2.4 Line or Characteristic Spectra
2.2.5 Factors Affecting the X-ray Spectrum
2.2.5.1 Tube Current, IT
2.2.5.2 Time of Exposure
2.2.5.3 Applied Voltage
2.2.5.4 Waveform of Applied Voltage
2.2.5.5 Filtration
2.2.5.6 Anode Material
2.3 Components of the X-ray Tube
2.3.1 The Cathode
2.3.2 The Anode Material
2.3.3 Anode Design
2.3.3.1 Stationary Anode
2.3.3.2 Rotating Anode
2.3.3.3 Rotating Envelope
2.3.4 Electrical Circuits
2.3.4.1 The Transformer
2.3.4.2 Generating Different Voltage Wave Forms
2.3.4.3 Medium and High Frequency Generators
2.3.4.4 Action of Smoothing Capacitors
2.3.4.5 Tube Kilovoltage and Tube Current Meters
2.3.5 The Tube Envelope and Housing
2.3.5.1 The Envelope
2.3.5.2 The Tube Housing
2.3.6 Switching and Timing Mechanisms
2.3.6.1 Primary Switches
2.3.6.2 Timing Mechanisms
2.3.6.3 The Electronic Timer
2.3.6.4 Frequency or Pulse Counting Timers
2.3.6.5 The Photo Timer
2.3.7 Electrical Safety Features
2.3.7.1 The Tube Housing
2.3.7.2 High Tension Cables
2.3.7.3 Electrical Circuits
2.4 Spatial Distribution of X-rays
2.5 Rating of an X-ray Tube
2.5.1 Introduction
2.5.2 Electrical Rating
2.5.2.1 Maximum Voltage
2.5.2.2 Maximum Tube Current
2.5.2.3 Generator Power
2.5.3 Thermal Rating—Considerations at Short Exposures
2.5.3.1 Effect of Cooling
2.5.3.2 Target Spot Size
2.5.3.3 Anode Design
2.5.3.4 Tube Kilovoltage
2.5.4 Overcoming Short Exposure Rating Limits
2.5.5 Multiple or Prolonged Exposures
2.5.6 Falling Load Generators
2.5.7 Safety Interlocks
2.5.8 X-ray Tube Lifetime
2.6 Mobile X-ray Generators
2.6.1 Battery Powered Generators
2.6.2 Capacitor Discharge Units
2.7 Quality Assurance of Performance for Standard X-ray Sets
2.8 Conclusions
References
Further Reading
Exercises
3 Interaction of X-Rays and Gamma Rays with Matter
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Experimental Approach to Beam Attenuation
3.3 Introduction to the Interaction Processes
3.3.1 Bound and Free Electrons
3.3.2 Attenuation, Scatter and Absorption
3.4 The Interaction Processes
3.4.1 Elastic Scattering
3.4.2 Photoelectric Effect
3.4.3 The Compton Effect
3.4.3.1 Direction of Scatter
3.4.3.2 Variation of the Compton Coefficient with Photon Energy and Atomic Number
3.4.4 Pair Production
3.5 Combining Interaction Effects and Their Relative Importance
3.6 Broad Beam and Narrow Beam Attenuation
3.7 Consequences of Interaction Processes when Imaging Patients
3.8 Absorption Edges
3.9 Filtration and Beam Hardening
3.10 Conclusions
References
Further Reading
Exercises
4 Radiation Measurement
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Ionisation in Air as the Primary Radiation Standard
4.3 The Ionisation Chamber
4.4 The Geiger–Müller Counter
4.4.1 The Geiger–Müller Tube
4.4.2 Comparison of Ionisation Chambers and Geiger–Müller Counters
4.4.2.1 Type of Radiation
4.4.2.2 Sensitivity
4.4.2.3 Nature of Reading
4.4.2.4 Size
4.4.2.5 Robustness and Simplicity
4.5 Relationship between Exposure and Absorbed Dose
4.6 Practical Radiation Monitors
4.6.1 Secondary Ionisation Chambers
4.6.2 Dose Area Product Meters
4.6.3 Pocket Exposure Meters for Personnel Monitoring
4.7 Semi-conductor Detectors
4.7.1 Band Structure of Solids
4.7.2 Mode of Operation
4.7.3 Uses of the Silicon Diode
4.8 Scintillation Detectors and Photomultiplier Tubes
4.9 Spectral Distribution of Radiation
4.10 Variation of Detector Sensitivity with Photon Energy
4.11 Conclusions
Further Reading
Exercises
5 The Image Receptor
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Analogue and Digital Images
5.3 Fluorescence, Phosphorescence, Photostimulation and Thermoluminescence
5.4 Phosphors and Photoluminescent Screens
5.4.1 Properties of Phosphors
5.4.2 Production of Photoluminescent Screens
5.4.3 Film-Phosphor Combinations in Radiography
5.5 X-ray Film
5.5.1 Film Construction
5.5.2 Characteristic Curve and Optical Density
5.5.3 Film Gamma and Film Speed
5.5.4 Latitude
5.6 Film Used with a Photoluminescent Screen
5.7 Reciprocity
5.8 Film-Screen Unsharpness
5.9 Introduction to Digital Receptors and Associated Hardware
5.9.1 Analogue to Digital Converters (ADCs)
5.9.2 Pixellating the Image
5.10 Digital Radiography (DR)
5.11 Photostimulable Phosphors—Computed Radiography (CR)
5.11.1 The Phosphor Screen
5.11.2 Read Out Process
5.11.3 Properties
5.12 Film Digitisation
5.13 Receptors Used in Fluoroscopy
5.13.1 Image Intensifiers
5.13.2 Viewing the Image
5.13.3 Cinefluorography and Spot Films
5.13.4 Digital Fluoroscopy
5.13.4.1 Image Intensifier-TV Systems
5.13.4.2 Charge Coupled Devices
5.13.4.3 Flat Panel Detectors
5.14 Quality Control of Image Receptors
5.14.1 X-ray Film
5.14.2 CR and DR Receptors
5.14.2.1 Dark Noise
5.14.2.2 Signal Transfer Property
5.14.2.3 Erasure Efficiency
5.14.2.4 Detector Uniformity
5.14.2.5 Image Quality
5.14.2.6 Detector Dose Indicator (DDI) Calibration
5.14.2.7 CR Plate Sensitivity
5.14.3 Fluoroscopic Imaging Devices
5.14.3.1 Field Size
5.14.3.2 Image Distortion
5.14.3.3 Conversion Factor
5.14.3.4 Contrast Capability and Resolution
5.14.3.5 Automatic Brightness Control
5.14.3.6 Viewing Screen Performance
5.15 Conclusions
References
Further Reading
Exercises
6 The Radiological Image
6.1 Introduction—the Meaning of Image Quality
6.2 The Primary Image
6.3 Contrast
6.3.1 Contrast on a Photoluminescent Screen
6.3.2 Contrast on Radiographic Film
6.3.3 Contrast on a Digital Image
6.3.4 Origins of Contrast for Real and Artificial Media
6.4 Effects of Overlying and Underlying Tissue
6.5 Reduction of Contrast by Scatter
6.6 Variation in Scatter with Photon Energy
6.7 Reduction of Scatter
6.7.1 Careful Choice of Beam Parameters
6.7.2 Orientation of the Patient
6.7.3 Compression of the Patient
6.7.4 Use of Grids
6.7.5 Air Gap Technique
6.7.6 Design of Intensifying Screen and Cassette
6.8 Grids
6.8.1 Construction
6.8.2 Use
6.8.3 Movement
6.9 Resolution and Unsharpness
6.9.1 Geometric Unsharpness
6.9.2 Patient Unsharpness
6.9.3 Receptor Unsharpness
6.9.4 Combining Unsharpnesses
6.10 Quantum Mottle
6.11 Image Processing
6.11.1 Point Operations
6.11.2 Local Operations
6.11.3 Global Operations
6.12 Geometric Relationship of Receptor, Patient and X-ray Source
6.12.1 Magnification without Distortion
6.12.2 Distortion of Shape and/or Position
6.13 Review of Factors Affecting the Radiological Image
6.13.1 Choice of Tube Kilovoltage
6.13.2 Exposure Time
6.13.3 Focal Spot Size
6.13.4 Quality of Anode Surface
6.13.5 Tube Current
6.13.6 Beam Size
6.13.7 Grids
6.13.8 Focus-Receptor and Object-Receptor Distance
6.13.9 Contrast Enhancement
6.13.10 Image Receptor
6.13.11 Film Processing
6.13.12 Post-processing
References
Further Reading
Exercises
7 Assessment of Image Quality and Optimisation
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Factors Affecting Image Quality
7.2.1 Image Parameters
7.2.2 Observation Parameters
7.2.3 Psychological Parameters
7.3 Operation of the Visual System
7.3.1 Response to Different Light Intensities
7.3.2 Rod and Cone Vision
7.3.3 Relationship of Object Size, Contrast and Perception
7.3.4 Eye Response to Different Spatial Frequencies
7.3.5 Temporal Resolution and Movement Threshold
7.4 Objective Definition of Contrast
7.4.1 Limitations of a Subjective Definition of Contrast
7.4.2 Signal-to-Noise Ratio and Contrast-to-Noise Ratio
7.5 Quantum Noise
7.6 Detective Quantum Efficiency (DQE)
7.7 Assessment of Image Quality
7.7.1 Modulation Transfer Function
7.7.2 Physical/Physiological Assessment
7.7.2.1 Method of Constant Stimulus
7.7.2.2 Signal Detection Theory
7.7.2.3 Ranking
7.8 Receiver Operator Characteristic (ROC) Curves
7.8.1 Principles
7.8.2 ROC Curves in Practice
7.8.2.1 Pixel Size and Image Quality in Digitised Chest Radiography
7.8.2.2 Assessment of Competence as Film Readers in Screening Mammography
7.8.2.3 Image Quality Following Data Compression
7.9 Optimisation of Imaging Systems and Image Interpretation
7.9.1 Optimising kVp for Digital Receptors
7.9.2 Temporal Averaging
7.9.3 Viewing Conditions
7.9.4 Optimising Perception
7.9.5 Computer-Aided Diagnosis (CAD)
7.10 Design of Clinical Trials
7.11 Conclusions
References and Further Reading
Exercises
8 Tomographic Imaging with X-Rays
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Longitudinal Tomography
8.2.1 Digital Tomosynthesis
8.3 Principles of X-ray Computed Tomography
8.4 Single-Slice CT
8.4.1 Data Cosllection
8.4.2 Data Reconstruction
8.4.2.1 Filtered Back Projection
8.4.2.2 Iterative Methods
8.5 Spiral CT
8.6 Multi-Slice CT
8.6.1 Data Collection
8.6.2 Data Reconstruction and Storage
8.7 Image Quality
8.8 Dose Optimisation
8.8.1 Tube Current Modulation
8.9 Artefacts
8.9.1 Mechanical Misalignment and Patient Movement
8.9.2 X-ray Output Variation and Detector Non-Uniformities
8.9.3 Partial Volume Effects
8.9.4 Beam Hardening
8.9.5 Aliasing
8.9.6 Noise
8.9.7 Scatter
8.9.8 Cone-Beam Artefacts
8.10 Quality Assurance
8.11 Special Applications
8.11.1 Four-Dimensional CT
8.11.2 Cardiac CT
8.11.3 Dual Energy and Spectral CT
8.12 Conclusions
References
Further Reading
Exercises
9 Special Radiographic Techniques
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Mammography—Low Voltage Radiography
9.2.1 Introduction
9.2.2 Molybdenum Anode Tubes
9.2.3 Rhodium and Tungsten Anode Tubes
9.2.4 Scatter
9.2.5 Image Receptors
9.2.6 Quality Control and Patient Doses
9.3 High Voltage Radiography
9.3.1 Principles
9.3.2 The Image Receptor
9.3.3 Scattered Radiation
9.4 Magnification Radiography
9.5 Subtraction Techniques
9.5.1 Introduction
9.5.2 Digital Subtraction Angiography
9.5.2.1 Image Noise
9.5.2.2 Roadmapping
9.5.3 Dual Energy Subtraction
9.5.4 Movement Artefact
9.5.4.1 Time Interval Differencing
9.6 Interventional Radiology
9.6.1 Introductio
9.6.2 Equipment Factors
9.6.3 Doses to Patients
9.6.4 Staff Doses
9.7 Paediatric Radiology
9.7.1 Review of Technical Criteria
9.7.2 Patient Dose and Quality Criteria for Images
9.8 Dental Radiology
9.8.1 Technical Detail
9.8.1.1 Intra-Oral Radiography
9.8.1.2 Panoramic Radiography
9.8.1.3 Image Receptors
9.8.2 Protection and Quality Assurance
References
Further Reading
Exercises
10 Diagnostic Imaging with Radioactive Materials
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Principles of Imaging
10.2.1 The Gamma Camera
10.2.1.1 The Detector System
10.2.1.2 The Collimator
10.2.1.3 Pulse Processing
10.2.1.4 Correction Circuits
10.2.1.5 Image Display
10.2.2 Additional Features on the Modern Gamma Camera
10.2.2.1 Dual Headed Camera
10.2.2.2 Whole Body Scanning
10.2.2.3 Tomographic Camera
10.2.2.4 The Cardiac Camera
10.3 Factors Affecting the Quality of Radionuclide Images
10.3.1 Information in the Image and Signal to Noise Ratio
10.3.2 Choice of Radionuclide
10.3.3 Choice of Radiopharmaceutical
10.3.4 Performance of the Imaging Device
10.3.4.1 Collimator Design
10.3.4.2 Intrinsic Resolution
10.3.4.3 System Resolution
10.3.4.4 Spatial Linearity and Non-uniformity
10.3.4.5 Effect of Scattered Radiation
10.3.4.6 High Count Rates
10.3.5 Data Display
10.3.5.1 Persistence Monitor
10.3.5.2 Display and Hard Copy
10.3.5.3 Grey Scale versus Colour Images
10.4 Dynamic Investigations
10.4.1 Data Analysis
10.4.1.1 Cine Mode
10.4.1.2 Time-Activity Curves
10.4.1.3 Deconvolution
10.4.1.4 Functional Imaging
10.4.2 Camera Performance at High Count Rates
10.5 Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT)
10.6 Quality Standards, Quality Assurance and Quality Control
10.6.1 Radionuclide Calibrators and Accuracy of Injected Doses
10.6.2 Gamma Camera and Computer
10.7 Conclusions
References
Exercises
11 Positron Emission Tomographic Imaging (PET)
11.1 Introduction
11.2 PET Radionuclide Production and Properties
11.3 Principles of PET Imaging and Detector Technology
11.3.1 Positron Decay
11.3.2 Coincidence Detection
11.4 Detector Geometry
11.5 Detector Construction
11.6 Detector Resolution
11.7 Detection Events
11.8 Image Formation
11.9 Image Reconstruction
11.10 Multimodality Imaging
11.11 Quality Control
11.12 Clinical Implementation-Radiation Safety Considerations for PET Imaging
11.12.1 Radiation Risks to Staff
11.12.2 Radiation Dose to the Patient
11.13 Current and Future Developments of PET and PET/CT
11.14 Conclusion
References
Further Reading
Exercises
12 Radiobiology and Generic Radiation Risks
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Radiation Sensitivity of Biological Materials
12.2.1 Molecular Basis of High Radiosensitivity
12.2.2 Cells Particularly at Risk
12.2.3 Time Course of Radiation-Induced Death
12.2.4 Other Mechanisms of Radiation-Induced Death
12.2.5 Transformation of Cells and Cancer Induction
12.3 Evidence on Radiobiological Damage from Cell Survival Curve Work
12.3.1 Cellular Repair and Dose Rate Effects
12.3.2 Radiobiological Effectiveness
12.4 Radiation Weighting Factors, Equivalent Dose and the Sievert
12.5 Radiation Effects on Humans
12.5.1 Tissue Reactions and Stochastic Effects
12.5.2 Carcinogenesis
12.5.3 Mutagenesis
12.6 Generic Risk Factors and Collective Doses
12.7 Very Low Dose Radiation Risk
12.7.1 Molecular Mechanisms
12.7.2 Confounding Factors based on Radiobiological Data
12.7.2.1 Bystander Effects
12.7.2.2 Adaptive Responses
12.7.3 Epidemiological Studies
12.8 Conclusions
References
Exercises
13 Radiation Doses and Risks to Patients
13.1 Introduction—Why Are Doses Measured?
13.2 Principles of Patient Dose Measurement
13.2.1 Where Is the Dose Measured?
13.2.2 How Is the Dose Measured?
13.3 Review of Patient Doses
13.3.1 Entrance Doses in Radiography
13.3.2 Entrance Doses in Fluoroscopy
13.3.3 Doses in Interventional Procedures
13.4 Effect of Digital Receptors on Patient Dose
13.5 Effective Dose and Risks from Radiological Examinations
13.5.1 Tissue Weighting Factors
13.5.2 Organ Doses
13.5.3 Effective Dose
13.6 Optimisation and Patient Dose Reduction
13.6.1 Technical Factors
13.6.2 Non-Technical Factors
13.7 Procedures Requiring Special Dose Assessment/Measurement
13.7.1 Computed Tomography (CT)
13.7.2 Mammography Doses
13.7.3 Nuclear Medicine
13.8 The Perception of Risk from Medical Radiation Exposures
13.9 A Special High-Risk Situation—Irradiation In Utero
13.9.1 Lethal Effects
13.9.2 Malformations and Other Developmental Effects
13.9.3 Radiation Effects on the Developing Brain
13.9.4 Cancer Induction
13.9.5 Hereditary Effects
13.9.6 Summary of Effects of Radiation In Utero
13.10 Conclusion
References
Exercises
14 Practical Radiation Protection and Legislation
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Role of Radiation Protection in Diagnostic Radiology
14.2.1 Principles of Protection
14.2.1.1 Justification
14.2.1.2 Optimisation
14.2.1.3 Application of Dose Limits (Limitation)
14.2.2 Patient Protection
14.2.3 Staff Protection
14.2.3.1 Reduction of Dose Rate
14.2.4 Public Protection
14.3 European Legislation
14.3.1 Introduction—the ICRP
14.3.2 European Legislation
14.3.3 Basic Safety Standards Directive 96/29/Euratom (1996)
14.3.4 Medical Exposures Directive 97/43/Euratom (1997)
14.3.5 Outside Workers Directive 90/641/Euratom (1990)
14.3.6 New Euratom Basic Safety Standards
14.4 UK Legislation
14.4.1 Radioactive Substances Act (1993)
14.4.2 The Medicines (Administration of Radioactive Substances) Regulations (1978)
14.4.3 The Ionising Radiation (Medical Exposure) Regulations (2000)
14.4.4 Transport Regulations for Radioactive Material
14.4.5 Ionising Radiations Regulations (1999)
14.4.5.1 Regulation 1
14.4.5.2 Regulation 6
14.4.5.3 Regulation 7 Risk Assessment
14.4.5.4 Regulation 10 Engineering Controls
14.4.5.5 Regulation 11 and Schedule 4 of ACOP Dose Limits
14.4.5.6 Regulation 13 Radiation Protection Adviser
14.4.5.7 Regulation 14 Training
14.4.5.8 Regulations 16 and 18 with Schedule 4 Designation of Controlled and Supervised Areas
14.4.5.9 Regulation 17 Local Rules and Radiation Protection Supervisors (RPSs)
14.4.5.10 Regulations 19 and 21 Dose Assessment and Monitoring
14.4.5.11 Regulation 27 Sealed Sources
14.4.5.12 Regulations 31 and 32 Duties of Manufacturers and Equipment Requirements
14.4.5.13 Regulations 33 and 34 Employee Responsibilities
14.5 X-ray Rooms
14.5.1 Introduction
14.5.2 Points of Note on Room Design
14.6 Nuclear Medicine
14.6.1 Introduction
14.6.2 Potential Internal Doses
14.6.3 Calculation of Ingestion Dose
14.6.4 Special Precautions in Nuclear Medicine
14.6.5 PET Facilities
14.7 Personal Dosimetry
14.7.1 Thermoluminescent Dosimeters (TLDs) and Film Badges
14.7.1.1 Thermoluminescent Dosimeters
14.7.1.2 Film Badge Dosimeters
14.7.1.3 Range of Response
14.7.1.4 Linearity of Response
14.7.1.5 Calibration against Radiation Standards
14.7.1.6 Variation of Sensitivity with Radiation Energy
14.7.1.7 Sensitivity to Temperature and Humidity
14.7.1.8 Uniformity of Response within Batches
14.7.1.9 Maximum Time of Use
14.7.1.10 Compactness
14.7.1.11 Permanent Visual Record
14.7.1.12 Indication of Type of Radiation
14.7.1.13 Indication of Pattern of Radiation
14.7.2 Optical Luminescence and Electronic Dosimeters
14.7.2.1 Optically Stimulated Luminescence
14.7.2.2 Electronic Personal Dosimeters (EPDs)
14.7.3 Staff Doses
Appendix
References
Further Reading
Exercises
15 Diagnostic Ultrasound
15.1 Introduction
15.2 The Ultrasound Wave and the Principles of Echo Mapping
15.3 Quantities That Describe an Ultrasound Wave
15.3.1 Describing the Vibration of the Medium
15.3.2 Excess Pressure
15.4 The Scale of the Diagnostic Ultrasound Pulse in Time and Space, and Why This Is Important
15.5 Production of Echoes
15.5.1 Characteristic Acoustic Impedance of a Medium
15.5.2 Reflection
15.5.3 Scattering
15.6 Other Aspects of Propagation
15.6.1 Refraction at a Boundary
15.6.2 Attenuation of Ultrasound
15.6.3 Calculating the Effect of Attenuation
15.6.4 Non-Linear Propagation
15.6.5 Dispersion
15.7 Ultrasound Probes, and How They Work
15.7.1 The Transducer Element
15.7.2 Directing Ultrasound along a Narrow Beam
15.7.2.1 Principles of Beamforming
15.7.2.2 The Receive Beam, and the Principle of Reciprocity
15.7.2.3 Sidelobes and Grating Lobes
15.7.2.4 The Need for Focussing
15.7.2.5 Reducing the Slice Width of the Beam
15.7.3 Scanning Probes
15.7.3.1 Mechanically Scanned Probes
15.7.3.2 Linear and Curvilinear Array Probes
15.7.3.3 Annular Array Probes
15.7.3.4 Phased Array Probes
15.7.3.5 Intra-Corporeal Probes (Endoprobes)
15.8 Overview of Diagnostic Ultrasound Modes
15.8.1 Review of Principles
15.8.2 A-Mode
15.8.3 B-Mode
15.8.4 M-Mode
15.8.5 Doppler Modes
15.9 Technical Aspects of B-Mode Ultrasound
15.9.1 Some Factors that Affect the Quality of a B-Mode Image
15.9.2 The Beamformer
15.9.3 Radio Frequency Amplification and Time-Gain Control
15.9.4 Digitisation
15.9.5 Write Zoom
15.9.6 Amplitude Demodulation
15.9.7 Dynamic Range Compression
15.9.8 Image Memory, Frame Store, and Scan Conversion
15.9.9 Facilities Based on the Image Memory
15.9.10 Post-Processing, or Grey-Map Selection
15.9.11 The Display Monitor
15.9.12 Storage of Images, Patient Details and Examination Reports
15.10 B-Mode Artefacts
15.10.1 Speckle Pattern
15.10.2 Reverberation (Multiple Reflections)
15.10.3 Mirror Image
15.10.4 Beamwidth Artefacts
15.10.5 Slice Thickness Artefact
15.10.6 Incomplete Boundaries
15.10.7 Acoustic Shadows
15.10.8 Post-Cystic Enhancement
15.10.9 Axial Registration Error
15.10.10 Refraction Artefacts
15.10.10.1 Lateral Registration Error, and Double Image
15.10.10.2 Edge-Effect Shadowing
15.10.10.3 Beam Distortion, or Aberration
15.11 Tissue-Harmonic Imaging (THI)
15.12 Compound Imaging (Compounding)
15.12.1 Spatial Compounding
15.12.2 Frequency Compounding
15.13 Coded Excitation
15.14 Contrast Media—Imaging and Therapy
15.15 3D and 4D Ultrasound
15.15.1 Introduction
15.15.2 3D and 4D Probes and Modes
15.16 Ultrasound Elastography
15.17 The Doppler Effect
15.17.1 The Doppler Spectrum of Blood
15.17.2 Continuous-Wave Doppler Systems
15.17.3 Audio Doppler Blood-Flow Indicators
15.17.4 Sampling, Digitisation and Spectral Analysis of Doppler Signals
15.17.5 Pulsed-Wave Spectral Doppler, Duplex Scanners and the Aliasing Artefact
15.17.6 Interpretation of Doppler Signals
15.17.7 Doppler Artefacts
15.17.8 Doppler Imaging
15.18 Ultrasound Safety
15.18.1 Physical Effects and Their Biological Consequences
15.18.2 Minimising Hazard
Conclusion
References
Acknowledgements
Exercises
16 Magnetic Resonance Imaging
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Basic Principles of Nuclear Magnetism
16.3 Effect of an External Magnetic Field
16.3.1 The Larmor Equation
16.3.2 Net Magnetisation M0
16.3.3 From Quantum to Classical
16.4 Excitation and Signal Reception
16.4.1 RF Excitation
16.4.2 Signal Reception
16.5 Relaxation Processes
16.5.1 Spin-Lattice Relaxation
16.5.2 Spin-Spin Relaxation
16.5.3 Inhomogeneity Effects
16.6 Production of Spin Echoes
16.7 Magnetic Field Gradients
16.7.1 Frequency Encoding Gradient and Fourier Transforms
16.7.2 Phase Encoding Gradient
16.7.3 Selective Excitation
16.7.4 Review of Image Formation
16.8 k-space or Fourier Space
16.9 Production of Gradient Echoes
16.9.1 Dephasing Effects of Gradients
16.9.2 Production of Gradient Echoes
16.10 Image Contrast
16.10.1 Spin Echo Image Contrast
16.10.2 Gradient Echo Image Contrast
16.10.3 T1w,T2w and PDw Images
16.10.4 Inversion Recovery Sequences (STIR and FLAIR)
16.11 Contrast Agents
16.12 Artefacts and Avoiding Them
16.12.1 Cardiac Gating
16.12.2 Respiratory Gating
16.12.3 MR Angiography
16.12.4 Digital Imaging Artefacts
16.12.5 Dephasing Artefacts
16.13 Technical Considerations
16.14 MRI Safety
16.14.1 Main Magnetic Field
16.14.2 Projectile Effect of B0
16.14.3 Gradient Fields
16.14.4 RF Fields
16.14.5 MRI in Pregnancy
16.15 Conclusions and Future Developments
References
Further Reading
Exercises
17 Digital Image Storage and Handling
17.1 Introduction
17.2 The Imaging Chain
17.3 Image Acquisition—Digital Representation of Images
17.3.1 Sampling
17.3.2 Encoding and Storage
17.3.2.1 Files
17.4 PACS System Architectures
17.4.1 Networks
17.4.1.1 Functions of the Network
17.4.1.2 Open Systems Interconnection
17.4.2 Ethernet
17.4.2.1 Network Topology—How Devices Are Connected Together
17.4.2.2 Bridging and Switching
17.4.2.3 Data Packaging on the Network
17.4.2.4 Layers 2 and 3
17.4.3 Internet Protocol
17.4.3.1 IP Addressing
17.4.3.2 Bandwidth and Latency
17.4.3.3 Shared Networks
17.4.3.4 Subnets and Virtual Networks
17.4.3.5 Quality of Service
17.4.4 Servers
17.4.4.1 Image Acquisition
17.4.4.2 Image Database
17.4.4.3 Integration with Other Systems
17.4.5 Virtualisation
17.4.5.1 Storage
17.4.5.2 Sizing Storage
17.4.5.3 Strategies
17.4.5.4 Backup and Security
17.5 Display Devices
17.5.1 Classes of Workstation
17.5.1.1 Diagnostic Reporting
17.5.1.2 High-Quality Clinical Workstations
17.5.1.3 Generic
17.5.2 Properties of Electronic Displays
17.5.2.1 Dynamic Range
17.5.2.2 Stability and Reliability
17.6 Standards
17.6.1 DICOM
17.6.1.1 Overview
17.6.1.2 What Is DICOM?
17.6.2 The Medical Devices Directive
17.6.2.1 Overview
17.6.2.2 Consequences of Classification
17.7 Availability and Reliability
17.7.1 Availability
17.7.1.1 Importance of PACS
17.7.1.2 Management Consequences
17.7.2 Reliability
17.8 Data Compression
17.8.1 Background—Reasons for Needing Compression
17.8.2 Lossy Compression
17.8.3 Lossless Compression
17.8.3.1 Attributes
17.8.3.2 JPEG 2000

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