Sensory Analysis of Foods of Animal Origin 1st Edition by Leo Nollet, Fidel Toldra 1439847959 9781439847954

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ISBN 10: 1439847959

ISBN 13: 9781439847954

Author: Leo M.L. Nollet, Fidel Toldra 

When it comes to food selection, consumers are very reliant on their senses. No matter the date on a carton of milk or the seal on the package of meat, how that milk smells and the color of that meat are just as critical as any official factors. And when it comes to meal time, all the senses must conspire to agree that taste, smell, color, and text

Sensory Analysis of Foods of Animal Origin 1st Table of contents:

Part I Meat

1 Color Measurements on Muscle-Based Foods

1.1 General Aspects of Color

1.1.1 Color Attributes

1.1.1.1 Appearance

1.1.1.2 Color as Quality Parameter

1.2 Color Measurement

1.2.1 Objective Methods

1.2.1.1 Reflectance Measurements

1.2.1.2 Near-Infrared Analysis

References

2 Measuring Meat Texture*

2.1 Introduction

2.2 History of Meat Texture Measurements

2.2.1 Warner–Bratzler Shear

2.2.1.1 Development of the Warner–Bratzler Shear Device

2.2.1.2 Standard Protocol for Measuring Warner–Bratzler Shear Force

2.2.2 Other Texture Measurement Systems

2.3 Developments in Meat Texture Measurement

2.3.1 Digital Texture Analyzers

2.3.2 Test Cells, Probes, and Attachments

2.3.2.1 Blades

2.3.2.1.1 Sharp and Blunt Blades

2.3.2.1.2 Razor Blade

2.3.2.2 Needle Arrays

2.3.2.3 Star and Hollow Probes

2.3.2.4 Plumb Bob

2.3.2.5 Nondestructive Deformation Test

2.4 Innovations in Meat Texture Measurement

2.4.1 Isometric Tension

2.4.2 Spectroscopy

2.4.2.1 Near-Infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy

2.4.2.2 Raman Spectroscopy

2.4.3 Sonography

2.4.3.1 Ultrasonics

2.4.3.2 Sonoelasticity

2.4.4 Image Analysis

2.4.5 Electromyography and Electrognathography

2.4.6 Elastography

2.5 Conclusions

References

3 Techniques for Sampling and Identification of Volatile Compounds Contributing to Sensory Perception

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Sampling of Volatiles Available for Sensory Perception

3.2.1 Headspace Sampling

3.2.1.1 Static Headspace Sampling

3.2.1.2 Dynamic Headspace Sampling

3.2.2 In Vitro Sampling (Mouth Analogs)

3.2.3 In Vivo Sampling

3.3 Identification of the Volatile Compounds Contributing to Sensory Perception: GC-O

3.4 Applications to Meat Flavor: Sampling and Identification of Volatiles Contributing to Sensory Perception

3.4.1 Extraction—GC-O

3.4.2 Static Headspace Sampling—GC-O

3.4.3 Dynamic Headspace Sampling—GC-O Analysis

3.4.4 Mouth Analog Sampling—GC-O Analysis

3.4.5 In Vivo Sampling

3.5 Conclusions

References

4 Sensory Descriptors

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Category Scales

4.3 Sensory Descriptive Profiles

4.4 Model Systems

4.5 Conclusion

References

5 Sensory Perception

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Factors Affecting Quality Perception

5.2.1 Consumer Expectations

5.3 Sensory Evaluation and Consumer Studies

5.3.1 Methods Used in Sensory Evaluation

5.3.1.1 Discriminative Tests

5.3.1.2 Descriptive Tests

5.3.1.3 Affective Tests

5.4 Factors Affecting the Sensory Quality of Meat

5.4.1 Type of Meat

5.4.1.1 Chicken Meat

5.4.1.2 Pork Meat

5.4.1.3 Beef Meat

5.4.1.4 Goat Meat

5.4.2 Genetic Factors

5.4.3 Warmed-Over Flavor

5.4.4 Production and Rearing Conditions

5.4.5 Effect of Postmortem Practices, Product Preparation, and Ingredients on Meat Quality

5.5 Influence of the Improvement of Nutritional Value on Sensory Quality

5.6 Concluding Remarks

Abbreviations

References

6 Sensory Aspects of Cooked Meats

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Color

6.3 Texture

6.4 Flavor

References

Part II Processed Meats and Poultry

7 Color Characteristics of Meat and Poultry Processing

7.1 General Aspects of Color

7.1.1 Color Attributes

7.1.1.1 Appearance

7.2 Practical Aspects of Meat Color Measurement

7.2.1 Color Physics

7.2.2 Meat Color

7.2.3 Color during Meat Processing

7.2.3.1 Slaughter

7.2.3.2 Aging

7.2.3.3 Fresh Meat Products

7.2.3.4 Dry-Cured Meat Products

7.2.3.4.1 Dry-Cured Sausages

7.2.3.4.2 Dry-Cured Ham

7.2.3.5 Cooked Meat Products

7.2.3.6 Marinated Meat Products

7.3 Functional Foods

7.3.1 Additives

References

8 Texture Analysis

8.1 Background

8.2 Shear Test

8.3 Penetration

8.4 Single Compression and Texture Profile Analyses

8.5 Tension

8.6 Torsion

8.7 Small Deformation

8.8 Other Noncontact Methods

References

9 Flavor of Meat Products

9.1 Introduction

9.1.1 Flavor Precursors

9.1.2 Flavor Analysis

9.2 Flavor of Cured Meat Products

9.2.1 Bacon

9.2.2 Frankfurter

9.2.3 Cooked Ham

9.2.4 Roast Beef

9.3 Flavor of Dry-Cured Meat Products

9.3.1 Dry- Cured Ham

9.3.2 Dry-Fermented Sausages

References

10 Sensory Descriptors for Cooked Meat Products

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Methods of Descriptive Analysis

10.2.1 Flavor Profile

10.2.2 Texture Profile

10.2.3 The Spectrum™ Descriptive Analysis Method

10.2.4 The Quantitative Descriptive Analysis Method

10.2.5 Quantitative Flavor Profiling

10.2.6 Generic Descriptive Analysis

10.2.7 Free Choice Profiling

10.3 Panel Selection

10.4 Descriptor Development

10.5 Meat Texture Descriptors

10.6 Meat Flavor Descriptors

10.6.1 Mouthfeel Characteristics in Meat Products

10.6.2 Lipid Oxidation and Warmed-Over Flavor in Meat Products

10.6.3 Boar/Sex Taint

10.6.4 Flavor Lexicons

10.7 Odor in Meat Products

10.8 Conclusions

References

11 Sensory Descriptors for Dry-Cured Meat Products

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Dry-Fermented Sausages

11.2.1 Sensory Methods Applied to Dry-Fermented Sausages

11.2.1.1 Flavor Descriptors

11.2.1.2 Sensations and Texture Descriptors

11.2.1.3 Appearance Descriptors

11.3 Dry-Cured Ham

11.3.1 Sensory Methods Applied to Dry-Cured Hams

11.3.1.1 Flavor Descriptors

11.3.1.2 Sensations and Texture Descriptors

11.3.1.3 Appearance Descriptors

References

Part III Fish and Seafood Products

12 Quality Assessment of Fish and Fishery Products by Color Measurement

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Instrumentation

12.3 Novel Method of Color Evaluation

12.4 Color Measurement on Fish and Fishery Products

12.4.1 Aquaculture

12.4.2 Fish Mince, Surimi, and Surimi-Based Products

12.4.3 Processing Effect on Color of Fish and Fishery Products

12.4.3.1 Refrigerated and Frozen Storage

12.4.3.2 Thermal Processing (Heating and Smoking)

12.4.3.3 High-Pressure Processing

12.5 Summary

References

13 Instrumental Texture

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Selection of the Test Procedure and Sample Preparation

13.3 Instrumental Texture

13.3.1 Kramer Test

13.3.2 Warner-Bratzler Test

13.3.3 Puncture Test1

13.3.4 Tension Analysis

13.3.5 Compression Test

13.3.6 Texture Profile Analysis

13.3.7 Viscoelastic Methods

13.3.8 Stress Relaxation Test

13.3.8.1 Creep Test

13.3.8.2 Small Amplitude Oscillatory Test

13.4 Texture Measurement for Quality Assessment

13.5 Conclusion

References

14 Aroma

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Reasons for Studying Fish and Seafood Aroma

14.2.1 Identification of Those Compounds, Which Are Important in Desirable Cooked Fish and Seafood Flavor

14.2.2 Identification of Compounds That Give Undesirable Aroma and Flavor to Cooked and Uncooked Fish and Seafood

14.2.3 Measuring the Effect of Pre- and Postslaughter Treatments

14.3 Sample Preparation

14.4 Aroma Extraction Methods

14.4.1 Solvent Extraction

14.4.2 Steam Distillation and Vacuum Steam Distillation

14.4.3 Simultaneous Distillation/Extraction

14.4.4 High Vacuum Distillation/Solvent-Assisted Flavor Evaporation

14.4.5 Headspace Analysis

14.4.6 Adsorption

14.4.7 Solid-Phase Microextraction

14.4.8 Analysis of Trimethylamine Oxide Breakdown Products

14.4.9 Analysis of Geosmin and 2-Methylisoborneol

14.5 Separation and Identification of Aroma Components

14.6 Quantification of Aroma Components

14.7 Detection of Components of Sensory Significance

14.8 The Electronic Nose

14.9 Future Developments

References

15 Quality Index Methods

15.1 Introduction

15.2 QIM

15.2.1 How to Use QIM

15.2.1.1 QIM Assessors

15.2.1.2 QIM Sessions

15.2.1.3 QIM Results

15.2.2 Development of New QIM Schemes

15.2.2.1 The Raw Material

15.2.2.2 Setting Up the QIM Scheme and Testing the Scheme

15.2.2.3 Validation of the QIM Scheme

15.2.3 QIM in Relation to the EU-Scheme

15.3 Conclusion

References

16 Sensory Descriptors

16.1 Introduction

16.1.1 Sensory Analysis

16.1.2 Objective and Subjective Sensory Analysis

16.2 The Human Senses

16.2.1 The Sense of Vision

16.2.2 The Olfactory Sense

16.2.3 The Sense of Touch

16.2.4 The Gustatory Sense

16.2.5 The Chemical/Trigeminal Sense

16.2.6 The Sense of Hearing

16.3 The Use of Sensory Descriptors

16.4 Sensory Descriptors in Seafood

16.4.1 Appearance

16.4.2 Odor

16.4.3 Taste/Flavor

16.4.4 Texture

References

17 Sensory Aspects of Heat-Treated Seafood

17.1 Introduction

17.2 Seafood

17.2.1 The Anatomy of Shellfish

17.2.2 The Anatomy of Fish

17.2.3 Difference between Fish Species and between Individuals

17.2.4 Handling of Seafood

17.3 Sensory Analysis of Seafood

17.3.1 Assessors

17.3.2 Sessions

17.3.2.1 Test Roo1m

17.3.2.2 Scales

17.3.2.3 Between Samples

17.3.3 Preparation of Heat-Treated Seafood Samples

17.3.3.1 Fish Samples Heat Treated in Oven

17.3.3.2 Fish Samples Cooked in Water Bath

17.3.3.3 Fish Broth

17.3.3.4 Prawns and Shrimps

17.3.3.5 Prawns Broth

17.3.4 Sensory Attributes

17.4 Examples of Sensory Characterization of Seafood

References

Part IV Milk and Dairy Foods

18 Color

18.1 Introduction

18.2 Description of the Techniques in Use in Dairy Food Color Analysis

18.2.1 Color Determination Using Traditional Laboratory Visible Spectrophotometers

18.2.2 Visible and Near-Infrared Reflectance (VNIR) Spectrophotometry

18.2.3 Tristimulus Colorimetry

18.2.4 Spectrophotometers Dedicated to Color Analysis

18.2.5 Color Chart or Color Fan

18.2.6 Computer Vision, Digital Scanning, and Image Analysis

18.2.7 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) of Pigments

18.3 Practical Applications in Dairy Foods Analysis

18.3.1 Anteprocessing (i.e., Milk Production Related to Cattle/Cow Feeding)

18.3.2 Processing

18.3.2.1 Butter

18.3.2.2 Cheese-Making Process

18.3.2.3 Use of Technologies Such as High-Pressure Processing or Ultrafiltration

18.3.2.4 Modification of Dairy Food Composition (Substitution of Milk Powder by Whey Powder or Soy Proteins, Use of Fat Replacers, Addition of Chitosan or Orange’ Fibers…)

18.3.2.5 Studies about the Whiteness of Mozzarella or Browning of the Same Cheese When Used in Pizza

18.3.2.6 Role of the Microflora in the Development of Color at the Surface of Soft Cheeses

18.4 Postprocessing

18.5 Quality Control

18.6 Conclusion

References

19 Texture

19.1 Introduction

19.2 Factors Affecting Texture of Dairy Foods

19.3 Definitions of Texture Parameters

19.4 Texture Profile Analysis

19.5 Texture Measurement of Dairy Foods

19.5.1 Cheese

19.5.2 Butter

19.5.3 Yogurt

19.6 Sensory Measurements

19.7 Viscosity Measurement of Dairy Foods

19.7.1 Capillary Tube Viscometer

19.7.2 Rotational Viscometer

19.8 Selection of Suitable Test for Dairy Foods

References

20 Rheological Properties and Flavor Release

20.1 Introduction

20.1.1 Textural Variety of Dairy Foods

20.1.2 Influence of Rheological Properties on Flavor Release

20.2 How to Characterize Flavor Release?

20.2.1 Mechanistic Approach to Flavor Release

20.2.2 Methods to Measure Diffusion

20.2.2.1 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance and Self-Diffusion

20.2.2.2 Concentration Profiles

20.2.2.3 Diffusion Cell

20.2.3 Methods to Measure Flavor Transfer

20.2.3.1 In Vitro or In Vivo Experiments

20.2.3.2 Static or Dynamic Headspace Measurements

20.3 Influence of Rheological Properties on Flavor Release from Dairy Foods

20.3.1 Gel Model Systems

20.3.2 Yoghurts

20.3.3 Custard

20.3.4 Cheese

20.4 Conclusion

References

21 Flavor Formation

21.1 Brief Introduction to Dairy Flavor Formation

21.2 Flavor Formation in Milk

21.2.1 Milk Flavors Developed During Heat Treatment and Storage

21.2.2 Flavors Developed from the Autoxidation of Milk Lipids

21.2.3 Light-Induced Flavor Formation

21.2.4 Flavor Compounds Derived from Package Component Migration

21.3 Flavor Formation in Fermented Dairy Products: Cheese

21.3.1 Fermentation of Lactose and Conversion of Citrate

21.3.2 Proteolysis and Catabolism of Amino Acids

21.3.2.1 Metabolism of Branched-Chain Amino Acids

21.3.2.2 The Catabolism of Aromatic Amino Acids

21.3.2.3 Methionine and Its Catabolic Pathways

21.3.3 Lipolysis and Catabolism of Fatty Acids

21.4 Concluding Remarks

References

22 Flavor

22.1 Brief Introduction to Dairy Flavor

22.2 Dairy Flavor Extraction Techniques

22.3 Analytical Methodologies for Dairy Products Flavor Investigation

22.3.1 Instrumental Techniques for Analytical Flavor Assessment

22.3.1.1 Gas Chromatography in Dairy Flavor Investigation

22.3.1.2 Gas Chromatography Coupled with Mass Spectrometry

22.3.1.3 Dairy Food Flavor Analysis by Means of Comprehensive Two-Dimensional Gas Chromatography

22.3.1.4 Odor-Activity Assessment by Means of Gas Chromatography- Olfactometry

22.3.1.5 Dairy Flavor Fingerprint Acquisition through Mass Spectrometry

22.3.1.6 Electronic Nose and Tongue in Dairy Flavor Analysis

22.3.2 Sensorial Dairy Flavor Analysis

22.3.2.1 Odor-Activity Value Determination

22.3.2.2 Analytical Sensory Tests

22.4 Characterization of Off-Flavors

22.5 General Considerations on Dairy Flavor

References

23 Determination of Identity and Quality of Dairy Products

23.1 Introduction

23.2 Traditional Techniques Used for Monitoring Cheese Ripening and Determination of the Quality and Authenticity of Dairy Products

23.2.1 Physicochemical Analyses

23.2.2 Liquid Chromatographic Techniques

23.2.3 Gas Chromatographic Techniques

23.2.4 Rheological Techniques

23.2.5 Sensory Analysis

23.3 Spectroscopic Techniques Used for the Determination of the Quality and Authenticity of Dairy Products

23.3.1 Control of Coagulation, Syneresis, and Heat Treatment

23.3.2 Monitoring of Cheese Ripening

23.3.3 Measurements of Cheese Composition, Cheese Rheology, and Sensory Attributes

23.3.4 Cheese Authenticity Determination

23.4 Conclusion

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