Steel Heat Treatment Metallurgy and Technologies 2nd Edition by George Totten 0849384559 9780849384554
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ISBN 10: 0849384559
ISBN 13: 9780849384554
Author: George E. Totten
One of two self-contained volumes belonging to the newly revised Steel Heat Treatment Handbook, Second Edition, this book examines the behavior and processes involved in modern steel heat treatment applications.Steel Heat Treatment: Metallurgy and Technologies presents the principles that form the basis of heat treatment processes while inc
Steel Heat Treatment Metallurgy and Technologies 2nd Table of contents:
1 Steel Nomenclature
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Effects of Alloying Elements
1.2.1 Carbon
1.2.2 Manganese
1.2.3 Silicon
1.2.4 Phosphorus
1.2.5 Sulfur
1.2.6 Aluminum
1.2.7 Nitrogen
1.2.8 Chromium
1.2.9 Nickel
1.2.10 Molybdenum
1.2.11 Tungsten
1.2.12 Vanadium
1.2.13 Niobium and Tantalum
1.2.14 Titanium
1.2.15 Rare Earth Metals
1.2.16 Cobalt
1.2.17 Copper
1.2.18 Boron
1.2.19 Zirconium
1.2.20 Lead
1.2.21 Tin
1.2.22 Antimony
1.2.23 Calcium
1.3 Classification of Steels
1.3.1 Types of Steels Based on Deoxidation Practice
1.3.1.1 Killed Steels
1.3.1.2 Semikilled Steels
1.3.1.3 Rimmed Steels
1.3.1.4 Capped Steels
1.3.2 Quality Descriptors and Classifications
1.3.3 Classification of Steel Based on Chemical Composition
1.3.3.1 Carbon and Carbon-Manganese Steels
1.3.3.2 Low-Alloy Steels
1.3.3.3 High-Strength Low-Alloy Steels
1.3.3.3.1 Classification of HSLA Steels
1.3.3.4 Tool Steels
1.3.3.5 Stainless Steels
1.3.3.6 Maraging Steels
1.4 Designations for Steels
1.4.1 SAE-AISI Designations
1.4.1.1 Carbon and Alloy Steels
1.4.1.2 HSLA Steels
1.4.1.3 Formerly Listed SAE Steels
1.4.2 UNS Designations
1.5 Specifications for Steels
1.5.1 ASTM (ASME) Specifications
1.5.2 AMS Specifications
1.5.3 Military and Federal Specifications
1.5.4 API Specifications
1.5.5 ANSI Specifications
1.5.6 AWS Specifications
1.6 International Specifications and Designations
1.6.1 ISO Designations
1.6.1.1 The Designation for Steels with Yield Strength
1.6.1.2 The Designation for Steels with Chemical Composition
1.6.2 GB Designations (State Standards of China)
1.6.3 DIN Standards
1.6.4 JIS Standards
1.6.5 BS Standards
1.6.6 AFNOR Standards
References
2 Classification and Mechanisms of Steel Transformation*
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Phase Transformation Mechanisms
2.3 Microstructure Evolution During Austenite Decomposition
2.3.1 Allotriomorphic Ferrite
2.3.2 Widmanstatten Ferrite
2.3.3 Bainite
2.3.4 Pearlite
2.3.5 Martensite
2.4 Microstructure Evolution During Reheating
2.4.1 Tempered Martensite
2.4.1.1 Carbon Segregation and Aging of Martensite
2.4.1.2 First Stage of Tempering
2.4.1.3 Second Stage of Tempering
2.4.1.4 Third Stage of Tempering
2.4.1.5 Fourth Stage of Tempering
2.4.2 Austenite Formation
2.5 Summary of Steel Microstructure Evolution
2.6 Prediction of Microstructure Evolution During Heat Treatment
2.6.1 Calculation of Multicomponent Multiphase Diagrams
2.6.2 Calculation of Diffusion-Controlled Growth
2.7 Summary
2.8 Acknowledgments
References
3 Fundamental Concepts in Steel Heat Treatment
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Crystal Structure and Phases
3.2.1 Crystal Structure of Pure Iron
3.2.2 Iron-Carbon Equilibrium Diagram
3.2.2.1 MetasTable Fe–Fe3C Equilibrium Diagram
3.2.2.2 STable Fe–C Equilibrium Diagram
3.2.3 Effect of Carbon
3.2.4 Critical (Transformation) Temperatures
3.3 Structural Transformations in Steel
3.3.1 Austenite–Pearlite Transformation
3.3.2 Structure of Pearlite
3.3.3 Transformation of Austenite in Hypo- and Hypereutectoid Steels
3.3.4 Martensite Transformation
3.3.5 Morphology of Ferrous Martensites
3.3.6 Bainite Transformation
3.3.7 Morphology of the Bainite Transformation
3.3.8 Tempering
3.4 Kinetics of Austenite Transformation
3.4.1 Isothermal Transformation Diagrams
3.4.2 Continuous-Cooling Transformation Diagrams
3.4.2.1 Transformations That Take Place under Continuous Cooling of Eutectoid Steels
3.4.2.2 Transformations of Austenite on Cooling in the Martensite Range
3.4.3 Derivation of the Continuous-Cooling Transformation Diagram from the Isothermal Transformation Diagram
3.4.4 Continuous-Cooling Transformation Diagram as a Function of the Bar Diameter
3.4.5 Definition of Hardenability
3.5 Grain Size
3.5.1 Structure of Grain Boundaries
3.5.1.1 Structural Models
3.5.2 Determination of Grain Size
3.5.3 Austenite Grain Size Effect and Grain Size Control
3.5.4 Grain Size Refinement
3.6 Strengthening Mechanism in Steel
3.6.1 Solid Solution Strengthening
3.6.2 Grain Size Refinement
3.6.3 Dispersion Strengthening
3.6.4 Work Hardening (Dislocation Strengthening)
3.6.5 Thermal Treatment of Steels
3.6.5.1 Annealing
3.6.5.1.1 Diffusion Annealing
3.6.5.1.2 Softening
3.6.5.1.3 Phase Recrystallization Annealing (Normalization, High-Temperature Annealing or Coarse-Grain Annealing, Pearlitization)
3.6.5.1.4 Stress Relief Annealing and Recrystallization Annealing
3.6.5.2 Quenching (Strengthening Treatment)
3.6.5.2.1 Normal Quenching
3.6.5.2.2 Thermochemical Treatment
3.6.5.3 Tempering
References
Further Reading
4 Effects of Alloying Elements on the Heat Treatment of Steel
4.1 Effects of Alloying Elements on Heat Treatment Processing of Iron–Carbon Alloys
4.1.1 γ- AND α-PHASE REGIONS
4.1.2 Eutectoid Composition and Temperature
4.1.3 Distribution of Alloying Elements
4.1.4 Alloy Carbides
4.2 Effect of Alloying Elements on Austenite Transformations
4.2.1 Influence of Alloying on Ferrite and Pearlite Interaction
4.2.2 Effect on Martensite Transformation
4.2.3 Retained Austenite
4.2.4 Effect on Bainite Transformation
4.2.5 Transformation Diagrams for Alloy Steels
4.3 Hardening Capacity and Hardenability of Alloy Steel
4.3.1 Hardness and Carbon Content
4.3.2 Microstructure Criterion for Hardening Capacity
4.3.3 Effect of Grain Size and Chemical Composition
4.3.4 Boron Hardening Mechanism
4.3.5 Austenitizing Conditions Affecting Hardenability
4.4 Tempering of Alloy Steels
4.4.1 Structural Changes on Tempering
4.4.2 Effect of Alloying Elements
4.4.3 Transformations of Retained Austenite (Secondary Tempering)
4.4.4 Time–Temperature Relationships in Tempering
4.4.5 Estimation of Hardness after Tempering
4.4.6 Effect of Tempering on Mechanical Properties
4.4.7 Embrittlement during Tempering
4.5 Heat Treatment of Special Category Steels
4.5.1 High-Strength Steels
4.5.2 Boron Steels
4.5.3 Ultrahigh-Strength Steels
4.5.4 Martensitic Stainless Steels
4.5.5 Precipitation-Hardening Steels
4.5.5.1 Structural Steels
4.5.5.2 Spring Steels
4.5.5.3 Tool Steels
4.5.5.4 Heat-Resistant Alloys
4.5.6 Transformation-Induced Plasticity Steels
4.5.7 Tool Steels
4.5.7.1 Carbon Tool Steels
4.5.7.2 Alloy Tool Steels
4.5.7.3 Die Steels
4.5.7.4 High-Speed Steels
Further Reading
5 Hardenability
5.1 Definition of Hardenability
5.2 Factors Influencing Depth of Hardening
5.3 Determination of Hardenability
5.3.1 Grossmann’s Hardenability Concept
5.3.1.1 Hardenability in High-Carbon Steels
5.3.2 Jominy End-Quench Hardenability Test
5.3.2.1 Hardenability Test Methods for Shallow-Hardening Steels
5.3.2.1.1 Hardness Survey Modification for Shallow-Hardening Steels
5.3.2.1.2 The Use of Special L Specimens
5.3.2.1.3 The SAC Hardenability Test
5.3.2.1.4 Hot Brine Hardenability Test
5.3.2.2 Hardenability Test Methods for Air-Hardening Steels
5.3.3 Hardenability Bands
5.4 Calculation of Jominy Curves From Chemical Composition
5.4.1 Hyperbolic Secant Method for Predicting Jominy Hardenability
5.4.2 Computer Calculation of Jominy Hardenability
5.5 Application of Hardenability Concept for Prediction of Hardness After Quenching
5.5.1 Lamont Method
5.5.2 Steel Selection Based on Hardenability
5.5.3 Computer-Aided Steel Selection Based on Hardenability
5.6 Hardenability in Heat Treatment Practice
5.6.1 Hardenability of Carburized Steels
5.6.2 Hardenability of Surface Layers When Short-Time Heating Methods Are Used
5.6.3 Effect of Delayed Quenching on the Hardness Distribution
5.6.4 A Computer-Aided Method to Predict the Hardness Distribution after Quenching Based on Jominy Hardenability Curves
5.6.4.1 Selection of Optimum Quenching Conditions
References
6 Steel Heat Treatment
6.1 Fundamentals of Heat Treatment
6.1.1 Heat Transfer
6.1.2 Lattice Defects
6.1.3 Application of TTT (IT) and CCT diagrams
6.1.3.1 Isothermal Transformation Diagram
6.1.3.2 Continuous Cooling Transformation Diagram
6.1.3.3 Heat Treatment Processes for Which an IT or CCT Diagram May Be Used
6.1.3.4 Using the CCT Diagram to Predict Structural Constituents and Hardness upon Quenching Real Workpieces
6.1.3.5 Special Cases and Limitations in the Use of CCT Diagrams
6.1.4 Oxidation
6.1.4.1 Scaling of Steel
6.1.5 Decarburization
6.1.5.1 The Effect of Alloying Elements on Decarburization
6.1.5.2 Definitions and Measurement of Decarburization
6.1.6 Residual Stresses, Dimensional Changes, and Distortion
6.1.6.1 Thermal Stresses in the Case of Ideal Linear-Elastic Deformation Behavior
6.1.6.2 Transformational Stresses
6.1.6.3 Residual Stresses When Quenching Cylinders with Real Elastic–Plastic Deformation Behavior
6.1.6.3.1 Thermal (Shrinking) Residual Stresses
6.1.6.3.2 Transformational Residual Stresses
6.1.6.3.3 Hardening Residual Stresses
6.1.6.4 Dimensional Changes and Distortion during Hardening and Tempering
6.1.6.4.1 Influence of Thermal (Shrinking) Stresses
6.1.6.4.2 Influence of Transformation Stresses
6.1.6.4.3 Dimensional Changes during Tempering
6.2 Annealing Processes
6.2.1 Stress-Relief Annealing
6.2.2 Normalizing
6.2.3 Isothermal Annealing
6.2.4 Soft Annealing (Spheroidizing Annealing)
6.2.5 Recrystallization Annealing
6.2.5.1 Grain Recovery
6.2.5.2 Polygonization
6.2.5.3 Recrystallization and Grain Growth
6.3 Hardening By Formation of Martensite
6.3.1 Austenitizing
6.3.1.1 Metallurgical Aspects of Austenitizing
6.3.1.1.1 Kinetics of Transformation during Austenitizing
6.3.1.2 Technological Aspects of Austenitizing
6.3.2 Quenching Intensity Measurement and Evaluation Based on Heat Flux Density
6.3.3 Retained Austenite and Cryogenic Treatment
6.3.3.1 Transforming the Retained Austenite
6.4 Hardening and Tempering of Structural Steels
6.4.1 mechanical Properties Required
6.4.2 Technology of the Hardening and Tempering Process
6.4.3 Computer-aided Determination of Process Parameters
6.5 Austempering
References
7 Heat Treatment with Gaseous Atmospheres
7.1 General Introduction
7.2 Fundamentals in Common [1–5]
7.3 Carburizing
7.3.1 Introduction
7.3.2 Carburizing and Decarburizing with Gases
7.3.2.1 Gas Equilibria
7.3.2.2 Kinetics of Carburizing
7.3.2.3 Control of Carburizing
7.3.2.4 Carbonitriding
7.3.3 Hardenability and Microstructures
7.4 Reactions with Hydrogen and with Oxygen
7.5 Nitriding and Nitrocarburizing
7.5.1 Introduction
7.5.2 Structural Data and Microstructures
7.5.2.1 Structural Data
7.5.2.2 Microstructures of Nitrided Iron
7.5.2.3 Microstructures of Nitrided and Nitrocarburized Steels
7.5.2.4 Microstructural Specialites
7.5.3 Nitriding and Nitrocarburizing Processes
7.5.3.1 Nitriding
7.5.3.2 Nitrocarburizing
7.5.3.3 Processing Effects on the Nitriding and Nitrocarburizing Results
7.6 Properties of Carburized and Nitrided Or Nitrocarburized Components
References
8 Nitriding Techniques, Ferritic Nitrocarburizing, and Austenitic Nitrocarburizing Techniques and Methods
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Process Technology
8.3 Composition of the Case
8.4 Composition of the Formed Case
8.4.1 Epsilon Phase
8.4.2 Gamma Prime Phase
8.4.3 Diffusion Layer
Nitriding
8.5 Two-Stage Process of Nitriding (Floe Process)
8.6 Salt Bath Nitriding
8.6.1 Safety in Operating Molten Salt Baths for Nitriding
8.6.2 Maintenance of a Nitriding Salt Bath
8.6.2.1 Daily Maintenance Routine
8.6.2.2 Weekly Maintenance Routine
8.7 Pressure Nitriding
8.8 Fluidized Bed Nitriding
8.9 Dilution Method of Nitriding
8.10 Plasma Nitriding
8.10.1 Plasma Generation
8.11 Post-Oxy Nitriding
8.12 Glow Discharge Characteristics
8.12.1 Townsend Discharged Region
8.12.2 Corona Region
8.12.3 Subnormal Glow Discharge Region
8.12.4 Normal Glow Discharge Region
8.12.5 Glow Discharge Region
8.12.6 Arc Discharge Region
8.13 Process Control of Plasma Nitriding
8.13.1 Processor Gas Flow Control
8.14 Two-Stage (Floe) Process of Gas Nitriding
8.15 Salt Bath Nitriding
8.16 Dilution Method of Nitriding Or Precision Nitriding
8.16.1 Control of Precision Nitriding
8.17 Furnace Equipment for Nitriding
8.17.1 Salt Baths
8.18 Plasma Nitriding
8.18.1 Plasma Generation
8.18.2 Glow Discharge Characteristics
8.18.3 Plasma Control Characteristics
8.18.4 Equipment Technology
8.18.5 Cold-Wall Technology
8.18.6 Power Supply
8.18.7 Process Temperature Measurement
8.18.8 Process Gas Flow Controls
8.18.9 Hot-Wall, Pulsed DC Current
8.18.10 Plasma Power Generation
8.18.11 Process Temperature Control
8.18.12 Temperature Control
8.18.13 Process Control
8.18.14 Low Capital Investment, High Operational Skills
8.18.15 Moderate Capital Investment, Moderate Operator Skills
8.18.16 High Capital Investment, Low Operational Skills
8.18.17 Metallurgical Considerations and Advantages
8.18.18 Metallurgical Structure of the Ion Nitrided Case
8.18.19 Metallurgical Results
8.18.20 Steel Selection
8.18.21 Prenitride Condition
8.18.22 Surface Preparation
8.18.23 Nitriding Cycles
8.18.24 Distortion and Growth
Ferritic Nitrocarburizing
8.19 Introduction
8.20 Case Formation
8.21 Precleaning
8.22 Methods of Ferritic Nitrocarburizing
8.22.1 Salt Bath Ferritic Nitrocarburizing
8.22.2 Gaseous Ferritic Nitrocarburizing
8.22.2.1 Safety
8.22.3 Plasma-Assisted Ferritic Nitrocarburizing
8.22.3.1 Applications
8.22.3.2 Steel Selection
8.22.4 Process Techniques
8.22.5 Case Depth
8.22.5.1 How Deep Can the Case Go?
8.23 Ferritic Oxycarbonitride
References
9 Quenching and Quenching Technology
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Metallurgical Transformation Behavior During Quenching
9.2.1 Influence of Cooling Rate
9.2.2 Influence of Carbon Concentration
9.2.3 Influence of Alloying Elements
9.2.4 Influence of Stresses
9.3 Quenching Processes
9.4 Wetting Kinematics
9.5 Determination of Cooling Characteristics
9.5.1 Acquisition of Cooling Curves with Thermocouples
9.5.2 Measurement of Wetting Kinematics
9.5.2.1 Conductance Measurement
9.5.2.2 Temperature Measurement
9.6 Quenching As A Heat Transfer Problem
9.6.1 Heat Transfer in a Solid
9.6.2 Heat Transfer across the Surface of a Body
9.7 Process Variables Affecting Cooling Behavior and Heat Transfer
9.7.1 Immersion Quenching
9.7.1.1 Bath Temperature
9.7.1.2 Effect of Agitation
9.7.1.3 Effect of Quenchant Selection
9.7.1.4 Surface Oxidation and Roughness Effects
9.7.1.5 Effect of Cross-Section Size on Cooling
9.7.1.6 Effects of Cooling Edge Geometry
9.7.1.7 Effects of Steel Composition
9.7.2 Spray Quenching
9.7.3 Gas Quenching
9.7.4 Intensive Quenching
9.8 Property Prediction Methods
9.8.1 Potential Limitations to Hardness Prediction
9.8.2 Grossmann H-values
9.8.3 The QTA method
9.8.4 Correlation between Hardness and Wetting Kinematics
9.8.5 Computer-based calculation of hardness profile
List of Symbols
References
10 Distortion of Heat-Treated Components
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Basic Distortion Mechanisms
10.2.1 Relief of Residual Stresses
10.2.2 Material Movement Due to Temperature Gradients during Heating and Cooling
10.2.3 Volume Changes during Phase Transformations
10.3 Residual Stresses
10.3.1 Residual Stress in Components
10.3.2 Residual Stresses Prior to Heat Treatment
10.3.3 Heat Treatment after Work-Hardening Process
10.4 Distortion During Manufacturing
10.4.1 Manufacturing and Design Factors Prior to Heat Treatment That Affect Distortion
10.4.1.1 Material Properties
10.4.1.2 Homogeneity of Material
10.4.1.3 Distribution of Residual Stress System
10.4.1.4 Part Geometry
10.4.2 Distortion during Component Heating
10.4.2.1 Shape Change Due to Relief of Residual Stress
10.4.2.2 Shape Change Due to Thermal Stresses
10.4.2.3 Volume Change Due to Phase Change on Heating
10.4.3 Distortion during High-Temperature Processing
10.4.3.1 Volume Expansion during Case Diffusion
10.4.3.2 Distortion Caused by Metal Creep
10.4.4 Distortion during Quenching Process
10.4.4.1 Effect of Cooling Characteristics on Residual Stress and Distortion from Quenching
10.4.4.1.1 Effect of Quenchant Selection
7 0.4.4.1.2 Effect of Agitation
10.4.4.1.3 Workpiece Size Effects
10.4.4.2 Effect of Surface Condition of Components
10.4.4.2.7 Effect of Surface Roughness
10.4.4.2.2 Effect of Oxide or Coating Layer
10.4.4.3 Minimizing Quench Distortion
10.4.4.3.7 Component Design
10.4.4.3.2 Steel Grade Selection
10.4.4.3.3 Selection of Quenchant and Agitation
10.4.4.4 Quench Uniformity
10.4.4.5 Quenching Methods
10.5 Distortion During Post Quench Processing
10.5.1 Straightening
10.5.2 Tempering
10.5.3 Stabilization with Tempering and Subzero Treatment
10.5.4 Metal Removal after Heat Treatment
10.6 Measurement of Residual Stresses
10.6.1 X-Ray Diffraction Method
10.6.2 Hole-Drilling Methods
10.6.3 Bending and Deflection Methods
10.6.4 Other Residual Stress Measurement Methods
10.7 Tests for Propensity for Distortion and Cracking
10.7.1 Navy C-Ring and Slotted Disk Test
10.7.2 Cylindrical Specimens
10.7.3 Stepped Bar Test
10.7.4 Key-Slotted Cylindrical Bar Test
10.7.5 Disk with an Eccentric-Positioned Hole
10.7.6 Finned Tubes
10.8 Prediction of Distortion and Residual Stresses
10.8.1 Governing Equations
10.8.1.1 Mixture Rule
10.8.1.2 Heat Conduction Equations and Diffusion Equation
10.8.1.3 Constitutive Equation
10.8.1.4 Kinetics of Quenching Process
10.8.1.5 Transformation Plasticity
10.8.2 Coupling Algorithm in Simulation by Finite-Element Analysis
10.8.3 Example of Simulation Results
10.8.3.1 Prediction of Warpage of Steel Shafts with Keyway
10.8.3.2 Prediction of Distortion during Carburized Quenching Process of Cr–Mo Steel Ring
10.9 Summary
References
11 Tool Steels
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Classification and Selection of Tool Steels
11.2.1 Selection of Tool Steels
11.2.2 Manufacturing Characteristics Are Related to Heat-Treatment Response
11.3 Manufacturing of Tool Steels
11.3.1 Steelmaking
11.3.2 Thermomechanical Processing
11.4 Important Steel Properties Relevant To the Manufacture of Tools
11.4.1 Dimensional Accuracy during Heat Treatment
11.4.2 Hot Formability
11.4.3 Cold Formability
11.4.4 Machinability
11.4.5 Grindability
11.4.6 Polishability
11.5 Important Properties Required for Various Applications
11.5.1 Hardness
11.5.2 Hardenability
11.5.3 Toughness at Operational Temperature
11.5.4 Resistance to Thermal Fatigue
11.6 Heat Treatment
11.6.1 Normalizing
11.6.2 Stress-Relief Heat Treatments
11.6.3 Annealing
11.6.4 Spheroidizing
11.6.5 Carbides in Tool Steels
11.6.6 Hardening
11.6.6.1 Austenitizing
11.6.6.2 Quenching
11.6.6.3 Retained Austenite
11.6.6.4 Tempering
11.7 Characteristic Steel Grades for the Different Field of Tool Application
Bibliography
12 Stainless Steel Heat Treatment
12.1 Historical Background
12.2 Phase Diagrams and Stainless Steel Typical Phases
12.2.1 Equilibrium Diagrams
12.2.2 Schaeffler, Delong, and Other Nonequilibrium Diagrams
12.3 Austenitic Stainless Steels
12.3.1 Solution Annealing
12.3.2 Stabilize Annealing
12.3.3 Stress-Relief Annealing
12.3.4 Bright Annealing
12.3.5 Martensite Formation
12.3.5.1 Transformation during Cooling
12.3.5.2 Strain-Induced Transformation
12.4 Ferritic Stainless Steels
12.4.1 The 475°C (885°F) Embrittlement
12.4.2 Sigma (σ)-PHASE Embrittlement
12.4.3 The Chi (Χ) Phase
12.4.4 Other Phases
12.4.5 Processing and Heat Treatment
12.5 Duplex Stainless Steels
12.5.1 Three Types of Embrittlement in Duplex Stainless Steels
12.5.2 Processing and Heat Treatment
12.6 Martensitic Stainless Steels
12.6.1 Processing and Heat Treatment
12.7 Precipitation-Hardenable Stainless Steels
12.7.1 Processing and Heat Treatment of Martensitic PH Stainless Steels
12.8 Final Remarks
References
13 Heat Treatment of Powder Metallurgy Steel Components
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Overview of P/M Processing
13.2.1 Press and Sintering
13.2.2 Metal Injection Molding
13.2.3 Powder Forging
13.3 Designation System for P/M Steels
13.4 Overview of Heat Treatment
13.5 Effect of Porosity on the Heat Treatment of P/M Steels
13.6 Effect of Alloy Content on P/M Hardenability
13.6.1 Copper Content
13.6.2 Nickel Content
13.6.3 Nickel-Copper Content
13.6.4 Molybdenum Content
13.7 Effect of Starting Material on Homogenization
13.8 Quench and Tempering
13.9 Sinter Hardening
13.10 Warm Compaction
13.11 Powder Forging
13.12 Case Hardening
13.12.1 Carburizing
13.12.2 Carbonitriding
13.12.3 Induction Hardening
13.12.4 Nitrocarburizing
13.12.5 Nitriding
13.12.6 Steam Treating
13.12.7 Black Oxiding
References
Appendix 1 Common Conversion Constants
Appendix 2 Temperature Conversion Table
Appendix 3 Volume Conversion Table
Appendix 4 Hardness Conversion Tables: Hardened Steel and Hard Alloys
Appendix 5 Recommended MIL 6875 Specification Steel Heat Treatment Conditions
Appendix 6 Colors of Hardening and Tempering Heats
Appendix 7 Weight Tables for Steel Bars
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